22 Sustaining Wild Species Miller’s - Living in the Environment 13th Edition

Factors Affecting Biodiversity Factors that increase biodiversity Physically diverse habitat Moderate environmental disturbance Small variation in environmental conditions Middle stages of succession Evolution Factors that decrease biodiversity Environmental stress Large environmental disturbance Extreme environmental conditions Severe limitations of an essential resource Introduction of a non-native species Geographic isolation

Human Impacts on Biodiversity Fig. 22-2 p. 561

The State of US Species Diversity

Strategies for Protecting Biodiversity Species approach Ecosystem approach

Species Extinction Local extinction Ecological extinction a species is no longer found in an area it once inhabited, but is still found elsewhere in the world Ecological extinction so few members of a species are left that it can no longer play its ecological roles in the biological communities where it is found

Biological extinction is forever! Species Extinction Biological extinction a species is no longer found anywhere on the earth. Biological extinction is forever!

Animal species that have become prematurely extinct Passenger pigeon Great auk Dodo Dusky seaside sparrow Aepyornis (Madagascar)

‘Endangered’ and ‘Threatened’ Species Endangered species species with so few individual survivors that the species could soon become extinct over all or most of its natural range. Northern spotted owl (threatened) Florida manatee Florida panther Gray wolf Bannerman's turaco (Africa) © 2004 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Endangered and Threatened Species Threatened (vulnerable) species species that is still abundant in its natural range but because of declining numbers is likely to become endangered in the near future. Northern spotted owl (threatened) Florida manatee Florida panther Gray wolf Bannerman's turaco (Africa) © 2004 Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning

Extinction Rate Background (natural) rate of extinction 0.0001% per year (1/10,000) Mass extinctions Adaptive radiations - recovery after mass extinctions

Extinction Risks Factors: population size, habitat, and genetics Population viability analysis Minimum viable population Minimum dynamic area

What are some characteristics of extinction-prone species?

Fixed migratory patterns Commercially valuable Characteristic Examples Low reproductive rate (K-strategist) Blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros Specialized niche Blue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite Narrow distribution Many island species, elephant seal, desert pupfish Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear Feeds at high trophic level Fixed migratory patterns Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtles Rare Many island species, African violet, some orchids Commercially valuable Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds Large territories California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther

Effects of Human Activities on Extinction Rates Before humans, extinction rate was one species per million annually Current rate of extinction is estimated at 100 to 1000 times the rate before humans Speciation Crisis - limiting long-term recovery of biodiversity by reducing the rate of speciation for some types of species.

Why Should We Care About Biodiversity? Instrumental value their usefulness to us Intrinsic value they exist, regard-less of whether they have any usefulness to us

Instrumental Values of Biodiversity Utilitarian (use) Economic Goods Food, fuel, fiber, lumber, paper, medicine, other useful products 90% of food crops were domesticated from wild plants A majority of our medicines were derived from plants. Bioprospecting – evaluating species for their economic potential

Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia Pacific Northwest Ovarian cancer taxol

Cinchona Cinchona ledogeriana South America Quinine for malaria treatment

Rosy periwinkle Cathranthus roseus native to Madagascar Hodgkin's disease, lymphocytic leukemia

Neem tree Azadirachta indica native to India Treatment of many diseases, insecticide, spermicide

Instrumental Values of Biodiversity Utilitarian (use) Economic Goods Food, fuel, fiber, lumber, paper, medicine, other useful products 90% of food crops were domesticated from wild plants A majority of our medicines were derived from plants. Bioprospecting – evaluating species for their economic potential

Instrumental Values of Biodiversity Utilitarian (use) Ecological Services Flow of materials, energy, and information from the biosphere Photosynthesis Pollination Soil formation Nutrient recycling Pest control Climate regulation Flood control Waste decomposition

Instrumental Values of Biodiversity Utilitarian (use) Information Genetic information Scientific information Educational information

Instrumental Values of Biodiversity Utilitarian (use) Options People are willing to ‘pay’ for the option of using resources directly

Instrumental Values of Biodiversity Utilitarian (use) Recreation We value recreational pleasure. Eco-tourism Should not cause ecological damage. Should provide income to preserve wildlife. Should provide funds for the purchase and maintenance of wildlife preserves and conservation programs.

Instrumental Values of Biodiversity Non-utilitarian (no use) Values Existence – value in knowing a thing exists Aesthetic – value in the beauty Bequest – willingness to pay to protect natural capital for future generations

Intrinsic Value of Biodiversity Each species has an inherent value and right to exist that is unrelated to their usefulness to humans Biodiversity matters and should not be depleted or degraded by our activities

HIPPO Habitat loss Habitat degradation Overfishing Basic Causes Introducing nonnative species Climate change Population growth Rising resource use No environmental accounting Poverty Commercial hunting and poaching Pollution Sale of exotic pets and decorative plants Predator and pest control HIPPO

Major types of habitat disturbances Agriculture Commercial development Water development Outdoor recreation Livestock grazing Pollution

Habitat Fragmentation When a large continuous area of habitat is reduced in area divided into a patchwork of isolated areas or fragments

HABITAT FRAGMENTATION Reduction in ranges of four wildlife species, mostly due to habitat loss and overharvest.

Indian Tiger Range 100 years ago Range today (about 2,300 left) Figure 11.8 Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Indian Tiger Range 100 years ago Range today (about 2,300 left)

Black Rhino Range in 1700 Range today (about 3,600 left) Figure 11.8 Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Black Rhino Range in 1700 Range today (about 3,600 left)

Probable range 1600 African Elephant Range today Figure 11.8 Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Probable range 1600 Range today African Elephant

Asian or Indian Elephant Figure 11.8 Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades? (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund) Asian or Indian Elephant Former range Range today (34,000–54,000 left)

California gnatcatcher Figure 22-15 Page 574 Cerulean warbler Sprague’s pipit Bichnell’s thrush Blacked-capped vireo Golden-cheeked warbler Florida scrub jay California gnatcatcher Kirtland’s warbler Henslow’s sparrow Bachman’s warbler Ten most threatened species of U.S. songbirds. Habitat loss and fragmentation most common threat.

Temperate broadleaf forests 94% Biome % of Area Disturbed Temperate broadleaf forests 94% Temperate evergreen forests 94% Temperate grasslands 72% Mixed mountain systems 71% Tropical dry forests 70% Subtropical and temperate rain forests 67% Cold deserts and semideserts 55% Mixed island systems 53% Warm deserts and semideserts 44% Tropical humid forests 37% Tropical grasslands 26% Temperate boreal forests 18% Tundra 0.7%

Extinction Threats from Non-native Species After habitat loss and degradation, non-native species are the biggest cause of animal and plant extinctions. Deliberately or accidentally introduced

Type of Nonnative Organism Annual Losses and Damages Crop disease $23.5 billion Crop weeds $23.4 billion Rats $19 billion Feral cats and outdoor pet cats $17 billion Crop insects $14 billion Livestock diseases $9 billion Forest insects and diseases $4.8 billion Zebra mussels $3 billion Common pigeon $1.1 billion Formosan termite $1.1 billion Fishes $1.1 billion Asian clam $1.1 billion Feral pigs $0.8 billion Starlings $0.8 billion Fire ant $0.6 billion

Deliberately Introduced Species Figure 22-17 (1) Page 576 Purple loosestrife European starling African honeybee (“Killer bee”) Nutria Salt cedar (Tamarisk) Marine toad Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar (Feral pig) Deliberately Introduced Species

Accidentally Introduced Species Figure 22-17 (2) Page 576 Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout) Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian muffle Common pigeon (Rock dove) Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae Accidentally Introduced Species

Kudzu Vine

INVASIVE SPECIES The Argentina fire ant was introduced to Mobile, Alabama in 1932 from South America. Most probably from ships. No natural predators.

Expansion of the fire ant in southern states. 1918 Expansion of the fire ant in southern states. 2000

Ecosystems Vulnerable Characteristics of Successful Invader Species High reproductive rate, short generation time (r-selected species) Pioneer species Long lived High dispersal rate Release growth- inhibiting chemicals into soil Generalists High genetic variability Ecosystems Vulnerable to Invader Species Similar climate to habitat of invader Absence of predators on invading species Early successional species Low diversity of native species Absence of fire Disturbed by human activities

HIPPO Habitat loss Habitat degradation Overfishing Basic Causes Introducing nonnative species Climate change Population growth Rising resource use No environmental accounting Poverty Commercial hunting and poaching Pollution Sale of exotic pets and decorative plants Predator and pest control HIPPO

Extinction from hunting and poaching

Ivory

International trade in wild plants and animals Live mountain gorilla ($150,000) Panda pelt ($100,000) Chimpanzee ($50,000) Imperial Amazon Macaw ($30,000) Rhino horn ($13,000 per pound) As commercially valuable species become endangered, the black market demand soars

Other Extinction Threats Predators and Pest Control Gray Wolf Carolina parakeet Prairie dog Market for Exotic Pets and Decorative Plants Climate Change Alters wildlife habitats Not enough time to adapt

Protecting Wild Species Research Approach Bioinformatics Building computer databases Developing computer tool to find, visualize and analyze information Communicating information

Protecting Wild Species Legal Approach International Treaties Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Forbids trade of 900 different live specimens or wildlife products Restricts trade of 29,000 other threatened species Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Legally binds signatory governments to reversing the global decline in biodiversity

Protecting Wild Species Legal Approach The Lacy Act of 1900 Prohibits movement of live or dead wild animals across state lines w/o a permit The Endangered Species Act of 1973 Illegal for Americans to import or trade in any product made from an endangered species

Endangered Species Act National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Identify and list endangered ocean species US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Identify and list all other endangered or threatened species Species cannot be hunted, killed, collected, or injured in the US 1250 species listed today Designate and protect the critical habitat Private lands subject to restrictions Prepare a recovery plan

Concentration of rare species 2 4 3 5 Top Six Hot Spots 1 Hawaii 2 San Francisco Bay area 3 Southern Appalachians 4 Death Valley 5 Southern California 6 Florida Panhandle 6 Concentration of rare species 1 Low Moderate High

Sanctuary Approach to Protecting Wild Species Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas Gene Bank, Botanical Gardens, and Farms Zoos and Aquariums Captive breeding Cloning

The U.S. has set aside 544 federal refuges for wildlife, but many refuges are suffering from environmental degradation. Pelican Island was the nation’s first wildlife refuge.

Gene banks, botanical gardens and using farms to raise threatened plant species can help prevent extinction, but these options lack funding and storage space. Zoos and aquariums can help protect endangered animal species by preserving some individuals with the long-term goal of reintroduction, but suffer from lack of space and money. captive breeding cloning

RECONCILIATION ECOLOGY Reconciliation ecology involves finding ways to share places we dominate with other species. Replacing monoculture grasses with native species. Maintaining habitats for insect eating bats can keep down unwanted insects. Reduction and elimination of pesticides to protect non-target organisms (such as vital insect pollinators).

Using Reconciliation Ecology to Protect Bluebirds Putting up bluebird boxes with holes too small for (nonnative) competitors in areas where trees have been cut down have helped reestablish populations.

What Can You Do? Protecting Species • Do not buy furs, ivory products, and other materials made from endangered or threatened animal species. • Do not buy wood and paper products produced by cutting remaining old-growth forests in the tropics. • Do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish, and other animals that are taken from the wild. • Do not buy orchids, cacti, and other plants that are taken from the wild. • Spread the word. Talk to your friends and relatives about this problem and what they can do about it. Figure 11.21 Individuals matter: ways to help premature extinction of species. QUESTIONS: Which two of these actions do you think are the most important? Which of these actions do you plan to take?

Wildlife Management Manipulating wildlife populations and their habitats for their welfare and for human benefit. enacting hunting and fishing laws establishing harvest quotas implementing population management programs improving wildlife habitat using international treaties to protect migrating game species such as waterfowl.

North American-South American flyways European-African flyways Asian flyways