Developmental Psychology: Infancy to Adolescence Ch 11 Psyc103 Dr. Jen Wright

infant brain

one of the last organs to develop… How much brain development has been completed at birth? A)100% B)75% C)25%

developmental processes

patterns of brain growth

effect of deprivation

importance of sleep REM sleep – critical for neural development in brain, esp. for activity- dependent development –E.g. visual system –Facilitates learning/memory Sleep deprivation linked with later problems –E.g. ADHD, learning disabilities Babies most at risk of disruption –Premature infants in IC units

importance of sleep

stress and brain development Exposure to excessive stress hormones is bad for brain development. Early symptoms of PTSD The brain can become incapable of producing normal stress responses. –Hyper-vigilance (Ghosts in the Nursery) –Emotional flatness Physical/emotional abuse and neglect can be equally damaging.

attachment

attachment theory Attachment refers to the close, emotional bond between an infant and his/her primary caregiver. Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud) –Driven by oral needs during the first year –Emphasized early experiences on later outcomes Behaviorist Perspective (Skinner) –Driven by the need for food –Learns to associate contact with mother with food Mother’s closeness continually reinforced

attachment theory Ethology (Lorenz) –Rooted in Darwin’s evolutionary theory –Focused on the adaptive value of behavior –Imprinting Bond necessary for survival

primary criticisms Love (i.e., attachment) seen as secondary to instinctive or survival needs John Bowlby: observations of children in institutionalized care –Harlow believed that the need for love and affection was necessary for survival

Harlow’s monkeys (1958) Early work with monkeys Cloth & wire mother –Only one equipped with feeding apparatus –Monkeys randomly assigned –Observed for 5 months Both groups preferred cloth mother

Contact Time with Wire and Cloth Surrogate Mothers Age (in days) Infant monkey fed on wire mother Infant monkey fed on cloth mother Hours per day spent with wire mother Hours per day spent with cloth mother Mean hours per day

Harlow’s monkeys (1958) dAIhttp:// dAI f6ZZBE&feature=relatedhttp:// f6ZZBE&feature=related

attachment theory Serves 2 purposes –Secure base –Internal working model Mary Ainsworth (1979) –Developed Strange Situation –Work revealed 4 types of attachment behavior Securely Attached Insecure Avoidant Insecure Resistant Insecure Disorganized –

internal working model

cultural variation

social learning

facial recognition

mirror neurons Found in the frontal and parietal lobes Fire when you A) You engage in an activity (reaching out one’s hand) B) You observe someone else engaging in the same activity. C) Both D) Neither True/False: Fire more strongly when action has some purpose or content –reaching out one’s hand for a cup.

emotional development

crying Crying – communication of emotion Response to distress –Development of emotional self-regulation Mastery of environment – agency Biofeedback loop Soothing –Swaddling – tight wrapping of baby in cloth –Touch –Sweet taste –Soft, rhythmic sounds –Vibration

crying disorders Colic (1 in 10 infants; birth – 12 weeks) –Extended periods of intense crying –Cause unknown Digestive problems Immature nervous system –Hyper-sensitivity Prolonged crying (beyond 12 weeks) –Exhibit developmental and behavioral disorders –PTSD symptoms in babies Stress hormones damage hippocampus Cause hyper-vigilance

early emotional expression Earliest emotion –global arousal states of attraction and withdrawal –set the stage for further development –develop into well-organized, sustained signals Basic emotions –emotions that can be directly inferred from facial expressions. happiness, interest surprise, fear, anger sadness, disgust

Basic emotions: A)Universal across all human cultures B)Present in other advanced species C)Include guilt, shame, embarrassment D)A&B E)All of the above

emotional self-regulation Strategies for adjusting emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity in order to accomplish goals Infants: withdrawal, distress, crying -- need soothing 4 mos: shift focus of attention 1 year: approach/retreat from stimulus Parents response to distress is important Sympathetic –child more easily soothed, more self-regulated Non-responsive (wait to intervene) –child enters into rapid, intense distress –harder to soothe –doesn’t develop self-regulation

emotional self-regulation When an infant’s needs are met, they can focus on the world around them and explore. –Their brains take in and adapt to stimulation from the external world. When they aren’t met, they become fixated on trying to get their needs met. –They stop exploring and shut out other stimulation from the external world.

emotions of others Emotional contagion: babies match the emotional expressions of caregiver –Still face experiment – Social referencing : relying on another person’s emotional reaction to appraise situation –Visual cliff –

Mirror neurons help infants experience others’ emotions: A)Yes, because they help them match emotional facial expressions B)Yes, because they stimulate a matching internal experience C)Yes, because they allow infants to empathize with others. D)A&B E)No, because mn’s are only involved in imitation of physical behavior

emotions and self-development Emotions are important in the emergence of self- awareness Self-efficacy –awareness that you can affect events in your surrounding Self-control –learning to modulate emotional reactions Self-concept –episodic memories –external vs. internal characteristics

emergence of the conscience Self-regulatory emotions –Guilt/Shame –Embarrassment –Pride –Disgust Awareness of expectations/reactions of others Important distinction between shame and guilt. What is the difference? Why do we call these emotions “moral emotions”? –moral awareness - sense of good vs. bad –Inhibition of bad behavior, promotion of good behavior

empathy May be more important for moral socialization than negative emotions Global distress in infants –Emotional contagion Egocentric empathy (2 yrs) Non-egocentric empathy (3 yrs+) Cognitive empathy (middle childhood) –Abstract perspective-taking

temperament

Constitutionally based individual differences in –Emotion –Motor function –Attentional reactivity –Self-regulation Influences the way that children develop, display, and control emotions –Foundation for later personality

temperament styles Types –Easy –Difficult –“Slow to warm up” Differences in sociability Differences in punishment/reward Which child will be harder to reward/punish? A) Easy child B) Difficult child

temperament styles What else affects the development of temperament? Gender Cultural differences Goodness of fit (with parents/environment)

body development

eating habits 2-6 year olds eat less than infants and older children. “Just right” phenomenon – picky eaters! –Like: salty/sweet foods –Dislike: bitter/sour foods Learning what is appropriate and not appropriate to eat Early signs of disgust –Infants show “disgust” facial expression –Strong food preferences

role of disgust Protection against dangerous substances –Poisonous foods often bitter –Rotten foods often sour –Disgust expression functions as warning Protection against contamination –Children not sensitive to contamination until early childhood Protection against deformity and disease

role of disgust Higher-order disgust Physical contamination  social contamination –7-8 year olds “cooties” Physical contamination  moral contamination Examples?

obesity Early signs of obesity as young as 2 years old Obesity rates among 2- to 5-year-olds –rose to 14% for the years –compared with 5% in 1980 Need less food than did as an infant –Problem for forcing child to “clean their plate” –Especially w/ desert as an incentive! Attraction to salty and sweet foods Other contributors?

consequences Type II diabetes –50% of some children in low-income areas Bone development problems –Stunted hip/leg bone growth Cardiovascular disease HBP, High cholesterol Lower IQ Obesity programs for toddlers? –

developing cognition

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Increase in “executive function” Results in increased impulse control –Delayed gratification –Perseverance Results in ability to override current intentions given new information –Color/shape card sorting game Memory development –Still better memory for content than context No memory of when/where something is learned

Maxi “false-belief” tasks ??

succeeding at the false belief task… Requires understanding that Maxi A) has a mental state (belief) that is different from the child’s mental state. B) has a mental state (belief) that is different from reality. C) neither D) both

appearance-reality tasks

What is the driving force behind this development? Brain maturation –Plasticity Cognitive exploration –Piaget –Vygotsky

Piaget Child as Scientists Children learn on their own Children are intrinsically motivated to learn Language and education play only minimal roles

Vygotsky Children as Apprentices Child learns through social interaction Children are socially motivated to learn Language and education play central roles

Children as apprentices –guided participation

scaffolding temporary support that is tailored to a learner’s needs and abilities aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process

zone of proximal development (ZPD) The skills that we can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently. ZPD applies to the ideas or cognitive skills we are close to mastering as well as to more apparent skills. Examples?

Get into the “zone” – otherwise known as “flow”.

parenting

parenting styles Authoritarian: restrictive style in which parents demand obedience and respect Parent places firm limits and does not allow discussion Parent rigidly enforces rules but rarely explains them Children are often unhappy, fearful, and anxious Authoritative: encourages children to be independent while placing limits and controls on actions Extensive verbal give-and-take Parents expect mature, independent, age-appropriate behavior Children are often cheerful, self-controlled, and self-reliant

parenting styles Neglectful: parent is very uninvolved in child’s life Children feel that other aspects of the parent’s life are more important than they are Children tend to be socially incompetent, immature, and have low self-esteem Indulgent: parents are highly involved but place few demands or controls on the child Children never learn to control their own behavior and always expect to get their way

Two Dimensions: Responsiveness Demandingness The best parenting style is: A)Indulgent B)Authoritarian C)Neglectful D)Authoritative Authoritative parenting mirrors Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development.