There are a number of advantages to using positive programming as a strategy for the reduction of behavior problems in applied settings. Together these advantages make programming the most preferable alternative to the use of punishment. Lavigna & Donnellen, 1986

Two main beliefs…  Teachers can make a difference in student behavior  What happens in the classroom can help any student learn to be more independent and responsible

Two criteria for dealing with behaviors  Ensure that that the student (s) are treated with dignity and respect  Provides a reasonable chance of helping student (s) learn to behave more responsibly.

Four situations  Behavior needs to be: –Reduced or eliminated –Increased –Taught –Maintained

Two approaches to increasing 1. Occurs before the behavior (an antecedent), you change the environment to make the behavior more likely to occur. 2. Occurs after the behavior ( a consequence), you reinforce the behavior to make it more likely to occur in the future.

Solutions  Rather than searching for complex solutions, behaviors frequently do not occur often enough simply because the environment interferes with them.

Environmental conditions  Student conditions  Teacher conditions  Specific environmental conditions

Simple solutions  Move student to quiet corner of the regular classroom  Move student within 10 feet of their regular desk  Return the student to their regular desk.

Competing stimulus  Hunger  Lack of sleep  Medication  Organization of the classroom

? You may expect the student to know what to do, when in fact he/she does not know. The student needs to know what you want and what they will get for doing it.

For example….  The teacher says “Joe, get to work”  The aide says “ Joe, get busy”  The volunteer says “Joe, time to start”  The student may not understand what is expected. A standard cue must be chosen and used consistently (at least in the beginning) for each student.

If a student exhibits a behavior, but not often enough, and the environmental changes either don’t work or weren’t possible, what can you do?

Reinforcer  A reinforcer is a thing or activity (stimulus) that FOLLOWS a response and increases the occurrence of that response in the future.  S R +  Good job. Reinforce that behavior.

Reinforcement is most effective  Individualized for a particular child  Presented contingent on target behavior  Immediacy of the reinforcement  Combining with verbal praise  Appropriate reinforcement schedule  Appropriate type of reinforcement  Quality and quantity of reinforcement  Reinforcers given by significant others or from people the student likes and admires  consistently

Positive reinforcement  The contingent provision of a stimulus (such as treat, object, or activity) following a target behavior, which results in an increase or maintenance of the frequency, duration, and /or intensity of the target behavior (Skinner, 1938, 1969).

Positive reinforcement  Is recommended as the intervention of first choice when trying to teach new behaviors  Increase appropriate behaviors  Or decrease inappropriate behaviors.

Negative reinforcement  Is the contingent removal of a stimulus following a target behavior, which results in an increase or maintenance of the frequency, duration, and/or intensity of the target behavior. Typically the removed stimulus stimulus.  Negative reinforcement is NOT punishment.

Negative reinforcement  Student focus their attention on avoiding an aversive event  Produces escape and avoidance behavior  ( students behavior appropriately only to avoid their teacher’s aversive behavior) –Typically not motivated except by fear and anxiety –Higher absenteeism or drop out to escape situation (vs teacher who use positive reinforcement for appropriate behaviors.

Types of reinforcers  Primary reinforcers – naturally reinforcing to individuals – food, liquids, warmth, etc.  Secondary reinforcers – stimuli that is not naturally reinforcing – these are learned or conditioned through association or pairing, with primary reinforcers.  The purpose is to fade the primary reinforcer and fade in, or increase the value of verbal praise which will become a secondary reinforcer capable of maintaining or increasing the target behavior.

Socially valid reinforcers  A reinforcer is considered socially valid when its provision is congruent with the norms of the student’s social setting.  Variables include: culture, setting,age of the student, the specific situation, and relationship between the teacher and the student.

The TRICK….  Is to basically find out for a student what is reinforcing to THEM (since different things are reinforcing to different students.  For example, I like…….

Strategies for finding reinforcers (preference assessments)  As the student  Ask someone who knows the student  Observe what the student chooses when given options  Try some things and see what happens. A stimulus (activity or thing) is only reinforcing if the behavior increases.

NO matter how much  You like chocolate or praise, if it doesn’t increase your student’s behavior, it is not a reinforcer.  Your student says he/she wants to do a particular activity, if access to that activity doesn’t increase his/her behavior, it is not a reinforcer in that particular situation.

Many times teachers will say that reinforcement doesn’t work….. If you try a potential reinforcer and it doesn’t increase the behavior that does not mean reinforcement does not work. It simply means you haven’t found the reinforcer that is reinforcing for that student in that setting.

Types of reinforcers  Activities (extra free time, listening to a cd, being alone or with a particular person, going to the library)  Activities are usually easy to use and most require little effort on the part of the teacher effort.

Tangible objects as reinforcers  If tangible objects are already available, it is a simple matter to rearrange the situation so the student gets what they want after the student does what you want.

Social reinforcers  Cheapest and easiest to deliver, most normal, and least intrusive reinforcer available AND for many students the most powerful.  Attention is a reinforcer if it increases a behavior.  Attention can be verbal, physical, or more subtle. BE SPECIFIC

Biggest problem  Reinforcement is often any type of attention. This negative attention maybe just as effective at increasing a behavior as positive attention.  If you attend to a behavior that you really want to decrease, and instead it increases, then you have reinforced that behavior in spite of what you set out to do.

You must consider  Which to use  When and how often  Cost  Ease of delivery  Intrusiveness  Normalization

Only one reason to select a reinforcer that is intrusive, expensive, difficult to deliver or not typical--- it is the ONLY thing that works. This is acceptable as long as it is a intermediate step and not the final solution. You must plan to phase (fade) it out ASAP.

Five things to remember 1. Deliver it fast 2. Fade reinforcement gradually 3. Pair it with praise 4. Watch for satiation 5. Be consistent across time, environment and teachers/parents.

Schedules of reinforcement  The pattern or frequency with which the reinforcer is presented in response to the target behavior.  The specific schedule has been found to have significant effects on the target behavior.  The most common types of reinforcement schedules are : continuous, fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval.

Continuous and Intermittent  Continuous-each and every time the target behavior is exhibited (especially recommended for working with young children or for a new behavior)  Intermittent- reinforcement occurs after some occurrences, but not each and every one of the specific target behaviors (when there is an association between the target behavior and the reinforcer and the teacher wants to fade or thin the reinforcer).

Ratio schedules  Fixed ratio –Reinforcing a student each and every time a target behavior occurs (fixed ratio of one FR1). –Every second time (FR2) every third time (FR3) –Advantage – systematic schedule of reinforcement, teachers know when to reinforce the target behaviors based on a fixed number of behaviors  Variable ratio schedules –Reinforcement is delivered following an average number of behavior occurrences. –On the average of every third (variable ratio of three VR3) –Harder to implement for the teacher, less systematic and consistent.

Interval reinforcement schedules  Fixed interval A reinforcement is used following a specific interval of time ( for every 10 consecutive minutes of appropriate behavior) A fixed interval of 10 FI10 Fixed interval of five FI5  Variable interval Average interval time – student for staying on task for an average of every 10 minutes would be considered a variable interval of 10 VI10

Shaping  Successive approximations of a terminal behaviors  Used for new behaviors and skills

Chaining  Refers to a performance of a series or a sequence of behaviors rather than just one independent behavior –1. Walk into the classroom –2. Hang up their coats –3. Put their lunch boxes in locker –4. Sit at their desks

Forward chaining  Teaching each behavior link, starting with the first link and moving down to the next link in the chain, until all the behaviors in the chain have been learned and can be performed in the appropriate sequence.

Backward chaining  Teaching each link in the behavior link starting with the last and moving up to the behavior chain.  Different learners do better with procedures.

Token economy reinforcement  Symbolic reinforcement system  Student receive tokens for specific appropriate behaviors which they may exchange for objects or activities that have been identified as reinforcing.  Advantages –can be used with large groups of children with minimum effort, simple but effective method of displaying positive attention to appropriate behaviors, let teachers offer a single reinforcer to many student who may have different reinforcer preferences.  Tokens are seldom subject to satiation and can be given without interrupting teaching and other activities.

Tokens  Should be something students can see, touch, and count  Not too small or too large for storage, counting or handling  Able to exchange for actual reinforcers  Should not be able to obtain tokens except from teacher – no trading or stealing  Understand that tokens are to be exchanged Teachers need to understand differences in children’s spending habits – some like to spend some like to save Opportunity to earn at least one token per exchange period and no maximum on how many a student can earn. Student who only earn a small number should be able to exchange for small reinforcers.

Contingency contracting  Establishment of a written behavioral contract between a student and a teacher regarding the performance of specific target behaviors and the exchange of specific consequences.  This provides a means for behavioral expectations, reinforcers, and other consequences in writing.

CONTRACT I, _________________________________________ will__________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ I, __________________________________________ will__________________________________________ _____________________________________________ _____________________________________________ Date____________________ Student signature_________________ Teacher signature_________________

Contract Contract between _____________ and _______________ If I do________________________________________________________________________________________ Then I can ____________________________________________________________________________________ Student signature_______________ Teacher signature_______________ Date______________________

Generalization  Refers to the degree to which a behavior change program influences other behaviors in addition to the target behavior  A reinforcement program to get a child to say please and the child also increases the use of thank you – then this a response generalization.

Promoting generalization of behavior  Teach in natural settings where behavior is most likely to occur (sharing behavior for example)  Select natural antecedents for stimulus control  Select natural consequences as reinforcers (good grades, hang assignments on bulletin boards)  Reinforce generalization – target behaviors exhibited outside the setting or situation

Maintenance  Behavior is maintained after the behavior change program has been completed

Techniques for generalization and maintenance  Teach in a variety of settings, variety of teachers, where behavior is like to occur  Identify common elements between environments  Gradually shift from artificial stimulus controls to natural stimulus controls  Shift from continuous to intermittent schedules of reinforcement ASAP  Pair artificial reinforcers with natural reinforcers and consequences  Phase out artificial reinforcers that would not naturally occur  Reinforce generalization and maintenance.

Reinforcers…..  Find potential reinforcers.  Make a HUGE list.