Chapter 2 Culture and Organizational Behavior © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Learning Objectives Understand what culture is and the levels of culture. Explain how culture is learned. Understand the major frameworks for explaining the cultures of different societies. Discuss the importance of culture for understanding and managing organizational behavior. Discuss implications of the debate over cultural convergence versus divergence. © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

What is Culture? A way of life of a group of people That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society Everything that people have, think, and do as members of society © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Sathe’s Levels of Culture Manifest culture Manifest culture Expressed values Expressed values Water line Basic assumptions Basic assumptions Iceberg Onion

How is Culture Learned? Enculturation Primary Socialization Non-intentional process that includes all of the learning available as the result of what is in an environment to be learned Primary Socialization more intentional learning process that occurs in the family and local community Subcultures Develop because a group has an ethnic background, language, or religion that is different from the majority population Secondary Socialization Occurs after primary socialization and usually equips people with the knowledge, skills, and behavior to enact adult roles successfully © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Variations in Values Orientations Framework to describe how different societies cope with various issues or problems Includes 6 Values Orientations A culture may prefer one or more variations of a values orientation © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Variations in Values Orientations Orientation Variations Relation to Nature Time Orientation Basic Human Nature Activity Orientation Relationships Among People Space Orientation Subjugation Past Evil Being Individualistic Private Harmony Present Neutral/Mixed Containing/Controlling Group Mixed Mastery Future Good Doing Hierarchical Public © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Relation to Nature Subjugation Harmony Mastery Accept nature; don’t try to change it Harmony Coexist with nature Mastery Change nature through technology when necessary or desirable © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Time Orientation Past Present Future Emphasizes tradition Focuses on short-term Future Emphasizes long-term © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Basic Human Nature Good Evil Mixed-Neutral People trust each other Lack of trust Mixed-Neutral Generally trusting but need to be cautious and protect self © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Activity Orientation Doing Being Containing/Controlling Emphasis on action, achievement, learning Being Emphasis on enjoying life and working for the moment Containing/Controlling Emphasis on rationality and logic © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Relationships among People Individualistic People define themselves through personal characteristics and achievement Group-oriented People relate to and take responsibility for members of the family, network, or community Hierarchical People value group relationships but also within the society emphasize relative ranking of groups © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Space Orientation Public Private Mixed Space belongs to all People consider it important to have their own space Mixed There is a combination of public and private space © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Hofstede’s Dimensions of Cultural Values Focuses specifically on work-related values Developed in 1980 with data over 116,000 employees in 72 countries Average scores for each country used to develop national profiles to explain differences in work behaviors © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Individualism/Collectivism Individualistic People have concern for themselves and their immediate families Collectivistic People value the overall good of the group © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Power Distance The extent to which less powerful members of organizations accept that power is unequally distributed Small Less comfortable with power differences Large Differences among people with different ranks are acceptable © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Uncertainty Avoidance Indicates preferred amount of structure Strong People prefer more structure Weak People prefer unstructured situations © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Masculinity/Femininity Extent to which people prefer traditional male or female values Masculine “Tough” values dominant - success, money, status, competition Feminine “Tender” values dominant - personal relationships, care for others, quality of life, service © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

The Chinese Value Survey Reaction to the Hofstede study Developed in Chinese based on traditional Chinese values Translated and administered to students in 23 countries 4 dimensions, 3 match Hofstede (PD, I/C, and M/F) plus Confucian Work Dynamism © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Long-term/Short-term Orientation High Confucian work dynamism/Long-term oriented Concern with future, value thrift and persistence Low Confucian work dynamism/Short-term oriented Oriented toward past and present, respect for tradition but here and now is most important © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Schwartz's Value Survey Focuses on universal aspects of individual value content and structure Based on issues that confront all societies Collected data over ten years from over 60,000 people in 63 countries © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Embeddedness Versus Autonomy People view others as inherently part of collectives Autonomy Individuals seen as autonomous, bounded entities who find meaning in their own uniqueness Intellectual autonomy - people follow their own ideas and value curiosity, creativity, and open-mindedness Affective autonomy - individuals independently pursue positive experiences that make them feel good © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Hierarchy Versus Egalitarianism Use a social system with clearly defined roles to make sure people behave responsibly Egalitarianism Think of each other as moral equals sharing basic human interests © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Mastery Versus Harmony Encourages people to master, change, and exploit the natural and social environment for personal or group goals Harmony Emphasizes understanding and fitting in with the environment, rather than trying to change it © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Trompenaars’ Dimensions of Culture Dimensions represent how societies develop approaches to managing problems and difficult situations Over a 14 year period, data collected from over 46,000 managers representing more than 40 national cultures © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Universalism Versus Particularism Judgment of what is good or true applies to every situation Particularist Circumstances and relationships influence judgments of what is good or true © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Individualism Versus Communitarianism Individualist Focus on self, personal freedom, and competitiveness Communitarian Emphasizes group membership, social responsibility, harmonious relationships, and cooperation © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Specificity Versus Diffusion Level of particularity or wholeness used by the culture to define different constructs Specific Objective, break things down into small parts Large public spaces and smaller private spaces Diffuse Focus on conceptual wholeness and relationships of all kinds are valued Small public spaces and larger private spaces © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Achieved Status Versus Ascribed Status Achievement Emphasize attainment of position and influence through a demonstration of expertise Ascription Believe people are born into influence, and who you are, your potential, and your connections are all important © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Inner Direction Versus Outer Direction Inner-directed See virtue as being inside the individual and believe that conscience and convictions are internal Outer-directed Believe virtue is outside the person and located in nature and relationships © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Sequential Time Versus Synchronous Time Do one thing at a time, make appointments and arrive on time, and generally stick to schedules. Synchronic Do several activities simultaneously, the time for appointments is approximate, and interpersonal relationships are more important than schedules © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Hall’s High-Context and Low-Context Cultural Framework High-Context Low-Context China Austria Egypt Canada France Denmark Italy England Japan Finland Lebanon Germany Saudi Arabia Norway Spain Switzerland Syria United States © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Ronen and Shenkar’s Country Clusters INSERT FIGURE 2-4 © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

The World Values Survey Study of sociocultural and political change Collected data from more than 65 societies Four waves of data collection: 1981, 1990-1991, 1995-1996, and 1999-2001 © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Traditional Versus Secular-Rational Orientations Toward Authority Values reflect preindustrial society and the centrality of the family Secular-Rational Opposite preferences to traditional © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Survival Versus Self-Expression Values Put priority on economic and physical security over self-expression and quality of life Self-expression Opposite preferences to survival © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Gannon’s Cultural Metaphors Identifies an important phenomenon, activity, or institution that members of a culture see as important as a metaphor for that culture Helps outsiders to describe and understand the essential features of a society © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Brown’s Cultural Universals 375 cultural universals compose the "Universal People" Contends that significant elements of human behavior are the same throughout societies © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Do the Frameworks Explain Differences? Represent average behavior within a culture Countries classified similarly may still be very different Reliability may vary Range of differences on any dimension exists within the population of a single country Can explain differences in individual people’s behavior within the same country © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Convergence or Divergence? Closer communication and trade links Worldwide markets and products Different cultural interpretations Need to maintain cultural identity © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Implications for Managers Understanding culture important even in home country Organization’s stakeholders could be from another culture Need to look for underlying cultural meanings © 2005 Prentice-Hall, Inc.