CONGRESS Historical roots: fear of majorities (and of HofR as “voice of people”) historical inexperience with democratic forms general fear of concentrated power The Founders’ hedged bets on Congress bicameralism original election of Senate (pre 17 th Amendment) “checks and balances” Other sources of complexity: Growth in size: 55 MC (1/30K) -> 435 MC (1/600K) Growth of government -> growth in role and powers Growth in presidential power

Response to complexity I: informal rules specialization and hard work respect your colleagues trust deference to committees Response to complexity II: committees Wilson (1883): “Congress in session is Congress on exhibition, whilst Congress in its Committee rooms is Congress at work.” Types of committees: 1. Standing 2. Temporary or select or special 3. Joint 4. Conference

Committee system and members’ careers Committees and the role of seniority Leadership in the House Speaker Majority leader and whips Minority leader and whips Democratic caucus, Republican conference Leadership in the Senate Rules of deference Presiding officer plays minor role (usually) Majority and Minority leaders Leadership resources

The Congressional Establishment Personal staffs Committee staffs Housekeeping staffs Primary Support agencies: Library of Congress, Congressional Budget Office, Government Accounting Office Job 1: Enacting legislation – introduction, committee, scheduling, decision, conference, signature Job 2: Legislative oversight Response to executive discretion Means: appropriations, perfecting legislation, sunset laws, (legislative veto)

Job 3: casework Congressman as ombudsman Representation: principals and agents Demographic Delegates vs. trustees Taking account of preference strength Gerrymandering The incumbency problem