1 Collocation and translation MA Literary Translation- Lesson 2 prof. Hugo Bowles February

2 Why do you say deep water and not profound water? “A word is known by the company it keeps” “A word is known by the company it keeps” (JR Firth) - tremble with fear tremble with excitement* - tremble with fear tremble with excitement* - quiver with excitement quiver with fear* - quiver with excitement quiver with fear* There is no definable reason why we choose to say “tremble with fear” but not “quiver with fear”. It is simply a question of COLLOCATION.

3 What is collocation? COLLOCATION refers to a relationship between words that frequently occur together COLLOCATION refers to a relationship between words that frequently occur together The words together can mean more than the sum of their parts (The Times of India, disk drive) The words together can mean more than the sum of their parts (The Times of India, disk drive) - other examples: hot dog, mother in law - other examples: hot dog, mother in law Examples of collocations Examples of collocations noun phrases like strong tea and weapons of mass destruction noun phrases like strong tea and weapons of mass destruction phrasal verbs like to make up, and other phrases like the rich and powerful. phrasal verbs like to make up, and other phrases like the rich and powerful. Valid or invalid? Valid or invalid? a stiff breeze but not a stiff wind (while either a strong breeze or a strong wind is okay). a stiff breeze but not a stiff wind (while either a strong breeze or a strong wind is okay). broad daylight (but not bright daylight or narrow darkness). broad daylight (but not bright daylight or narrow darkness).

4 Collocational meaning (1) Collocational meaning refers to the associations that a word acquires in its collocation: Collocational meaning refers to the associations that a word acquires in its collocation: e.g. e.g. girl boy girl boy boy man boy man woman car woman car pretty flower handsome overcoat pretty flower handsome overcoat garden airline garden airline colour typewriter colour typewriter village vessel village vessel

5 Collocational meaning (2) A word can gain different collocational meaning in different contexts: A word can gain different collocational meaning in different contexts:e.g. green on the jobwhite man green fruitwhite wine green with envywhite noise white coffee These different meanings of “ green ” and “ white ” are polysemous but they are caused by the different collocation, i.e. the change in verbal context

6 Criteria for collocations Typical criteria for collocations: Typical criteria for collocations: - non-compositionality - non-compositionality - non-substitutability - non-substitutability - non-modifiability. - non-modifiability. Collocations usually cannot be translated into other languages word by word. Collocations usually cannot be translated into other languages word by word. A phrase can be a collocation even if it is not consecutive (as in the example knock... door). A phrase can be a collocation even if it is not consecutive (as in the example knock... door).

7 Non-compositionality A phrase is compositional if the meaning can predicted from the meaning of the parts. A phrase is compositional if the meaning can predicted from the meaning of the parts. e.g. new companies e.g. new companies A phrase is non-compositional if the meaning cannot be predicted from the meaning of the parts A phrase is non-compositional if the meaning cannot be predicted from the meaning of the parts e.g. hot dog e.g. hot dog Collocations are not necessarily fully compositional in that there is usually an element of meaning added to the combination. e.g. strong tea. Collocations are not necessarily fully compositional in that there is usually an element of meaning added to the combination. e.g. strong tea. Idioms are the most extreme examples of non- compositionality. e.g. to hear it through the grapevine. Idioms are the most extreme examples of non- compositionality. e.g. to hear it through the grapevine.

8Non-substitutability We cannot substitute near-synonyms for the components of a collocation. We cannot substitute near-synonyms for the components of a collocation. e.g. We can’t say yellow wine instead of white wine even though yellow is as good a description of the color of white wine as white is (it is kind of a yellowish white). Many collocations cannot be freely modified with additional lexical material or through grammatical transformations (Non-modifiability). Many collocations cannot be freely modified with additional lexical material or through grammatical transformations (Non-modifiability). E.g. white wine, but not whiter wine E.g. white wine, but not whiter wine mother in law, but not mother in laws mother in law, but not mother in laws

9 Linguistic Subclasses of Collocations Light verbs: Light verbs: - Verbs with little semantic content like make, take and do. - Verbs with little semantic content like make, take and do. - e.g. make lunch, take easy, - e.g. make lunch, take easy, Verb particle constructions Verb particle constructions - e.g. to go down - e.g. to go down Proper nouns Proper nouns - e.g. Bill Clinton - e.g. Bill Clinton Terminological expressions refer to concepts and objects in technical domains. Terminological expressions refer to concepts and objects in technical domains. - e.g. Hydraulic oil filter - e.g. Hydraulic oil filter

10 Collocations at a distance Many collocations occur at variable distances. For example knock collocates with door but at a distance Many collocations occur at variable distances. For example knock collocates with door but at a distance - she knocked on his door - she knocked on his door - they knocked at the door - they knocked at the door women knocked on Donaldson’s door women knocked on Donaldson’s door - a man knocked on the metal front door - a man knocked on the metal front door

11 Finding collocations Software is able to scan texts for the most frequently collocated words using the criterion of frequency, i.e. by counting the words which most frequently appear together Software is able to scan texts for the most frequently collocated words using the criterion of frequency, i.e. by counting the words which most frequently appear together This usually produces a lot of function words which need to be filtered out This usually produces a lot of function words which need to be filtered out

12 An example of a frequency count This shows the most frequent collocations of pairs of words (bigrams) in a corpus of newspaper articles. The are all function words (except New York)

13 Frequency count after filtering This chart shows the most frequent collocations after filtering out the function words. The capital letters refer to the part of speech (A = Adjective, N = Noun)

14 Translation problems with collocations Temptation to follow the english collocation (dry - secco; gentle - gentile) Temptation to follow the english collocation (dry - secco; gentle - gentile) Not understanding the meaning of the collocation (dry cow) Not understanding the meaning of the collocation (dry cow) Culture specific collocations (Union Jack) Culture specific collocations (Union Jack) Understanding when collocations are marked (heavy gambler) Understanding when collocations are marked (heavy gambler) Translating marked collocations (heavy non-smoker) Translating marked collocations (heavy non-smoker)

15 Translation problems with idioms Understanding the idioms Understanding the idioms English idioms with no equivalent in Italian English idioms with no equivalent in Italian Understanding when idioms are marked (“you’re getting on my breasts”) Understanding when idioms are marked (“you’re getting on my breasts”) Translating marked idioms Translating marked idioms Understanding when idioms have been manipulated (silver linings and all that) Understanding when idioms have been manipulated (silver linings and all that) Translating manipulated idioms Translating manipulated idioms

16 Idioms - characteristics (1) Idioms are strictly non-compositional Idioms are strictly non-compositional Although the word that make up the idiom have Their own literal meanings, in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. You canot predict the meaning of an idiom from the sum of its parts: e.g. how do you do? I’m under the weather to wear your heart on your sleeve red herring

17 Idioms - characteristics (2) Structural stability (syntactic frozenness) Structural stability (syntactic frozenness) 1. Constituents cannot be replaced 1. Constituents cannot be replaced e.g. as good as gold / as good as play ? 2. Word order cannot be changed 2. Word order cannot be changed e.g. tit for tat / tat for tit? 3. Constituents cannot be deleted or added to 3. Constituents cannot be deleted or added to e.g. out of the question / out of question ?

18 Dictionaries Please ask Sara Laviosa which ones she recommends The LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations The LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Idioms Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Idioms Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms