The Self as Part of a Whole u Hinduism: all individuals are really only expressions of one divine, eternal self. We cannot really possess anything privately as our own, and should affirm the totality of the world as our sacred reality u Taoism: all things express the order and cycle of reality. We should embrace the way or harmony of nature as our own Mahatma Gandhi ( )

The Non-Human-Centered Self: Deep Ecology u My true self includes all beings in the world u We maximize self-realization by identifying with and promoting the welfare of all of nature u We should avoid the selfish consumption of resources and destruction of natural diversity not because such acts are immoral but because they inhibit our joyful experience of nature Arne Naess (b. 1912)

The Self as Evolved Animal: Charles Darwin u Physical similarities between humans and other animals indicates our links to them u Intellectual and emotional differences between humans and other animals are minor and can be explained as products of random variation, adaptation, natural selection, and conditioning ( )