Determining Diet

Spring Autumn

Se Co Mo Tanzania Lick Topsoil Peru Lick Topsoil Mills et al J Zool Micronutrients Natural Salt Licks

Carnivores Dietary Challenge?

Herbivores Dietary Challenge? Conifer needles Other plant berries cacti Beans/seeds Grass, tubers

Foregut fermenters Ruminants Hindgut fermenters CervidaeBovidae

Forbs Browse Grasses

Antilocapra americanaGrass Browse (shrub) Forb Availability Diet Preference

Measuring nitrogen In food In feces Bighorn ewe mass gain Fecal Nitrogen Change in Grouse Density Nitrogen (% dry matter)

Nitrogen in urine? Urea: Creatinine Ratio Protein in diet When is excess urea produced?

Ca oxalate Concentration Preference Javelina Example of Dietary Trade offs– Protein concentration

8% protein diet 16% protein diet Assessing Condition

Body condition – Ungulate rumps

Kidney fat Bone marrow fat Furcula “wishbone” fat

Fat deposition can begin during summer in bucks but may be delayed 2 to 3 months in does because of the extreme energy demands placed on does by lactation The most appropriate application of fat indices is interpreting area differences within the same season and year or yearly differences within the same area and season KFI = Fat/Kidney X 100

Measuring Stress - Adrenals and Stress Hormones Free Ranging Captive Adrenal glands Fecal corticoids Terio et al. 2004