The process and problems of social research Chapter 2 The process and problems of social research

Social research is done through the process of: Specifying a research question Developing an appropriate research strategy Choosing appropriate units of analysis Conforming to scientific and ethical guidelines

What is the question? A social research question is a question about the social world that you seek to answer through the collection and analysis of firsthand, verifiable, empirical data. But that doesn’t mean it is easy to specify a research question. In fact, formulating a good research question can be surprisingly difficult.

What makes a research question “good”? Feasibility: Can you start and finish an investigation with available resources and in the time allotted? Social importance: Will the answer make a difference in the social world, even if it only helps people understand a problem? Scientific relevance: Does your question help resolve some contradictory research findings or a puzzling issue in social theory?

What is the theory? Building and evaluating theory is one of the most important objectives of social science. A theory is a logically interrelated set of propositions that helps us make sense of many interrelated phenomena and predict behavior or attitudes that are likely to occur when certain conditions are met. Social theories suggest the areas on which we should focus and the propositions that we should consider testing.

How do we find relevant social theory and prior research? You’ll find that in any area of research, developing an understanding of relevant theories will help you to ask important questions, consider reasonable alternatives and choose appropriate research procedures. The social science research community is large and active, and new research results appear continually in scholarly journals and books. The World Wide Web is also a good source.

What is the strategy? When we conduct social research, we are attempting to connect theory with empirical data—the evidence we obtain from the social world. Deductive research--starting with a social theory and then testing some of its implications with data. Inductive research--first collecting the data and then developing a theory that explains patterns in the data. A research project can use both strategies.

Deductive research In deductive research a specific expectation is deduced from a general theoretical premise and then tested with data that have been collected for this purpose. We call the specific expectation deduced from the more general theory a hypothesis. A hypothesis proposes a relationship between two or more variables—characteristics or properties that can vary.

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Variation in one variable is proposed to predict, influence, or cause variation in the other variable. The proposed influence is the independent variable; its effect or consequence is the dependent variable. After the researchers formulate one or more hypotheses and develop research procedures, they collect data with which to test the hypothesis.

Direction of association A pattern in a relationship between two variables---that is, the value of a variable tends to change consistently in relation to change in the other variable When researchers hypothesize that one variable increases as the other variable increases, the direction of association is positive . But when one variable increases as the other decreases, or vice versa, the direction of association is negative, or inverse .

Inductive research Inductive research begins with specific data, which are then used to develop (induce) a general explanation (a theory) to account for the data. Inductive reasoning enters into deductive research when we find unexpected patterns in the data we have collected for testing a hypothesis. We may call these patterns serendipitous findings or anomalous findings.

What is the design? Researchers usually start with a question, though some begin with a theory or a strategy. If you are very systematic, the question is related to a theory, and an appropriate strategy is chosen for the research. There are several different types of research designs. One important distinction between the types is whether data are collected at one point in time or at two or more points in time. Another distinction is whether the design focuses on individuals or on groups.

Cross-sectional designs In a cross-sectional research design, all data are collected at one point in time. Identifying the time order of effects— what happened first, and so on—is critical for developing a causal analysis, but can be an insurmountable problem with a cross-sectional design.

Longitudinal Designs In longitudinal research designs, data are collected at two or more points in time, and so identification of the time order of effects can be quite straightforward. By measuring the value of cases on an independent variable and a dependent variable at different times, the researcher can determine whether variation in the independent variable precedes variation in the dependent variable. The value of longitudinal data is so great that every effort should be made to develop longitudinal research designs when they are appropriate for the search question asked.

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Types of longitudinal designs Repeated cross-sectional design (trend study). A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected at two or more points in time from different samples of the same population. Fixed-sample panel design (panel study). A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected from the same individuals—the panel—at two or more points in time. In another type of panel design, panel members who leave are replaced with new members.

Types of longitudinal designs con’t Event-based design (cohort study). A type of longitudinal study in which data are collected at two or more points in time from individuals in a cohort.

Units and levels of analysis Whenever we design research, we must decide whether to use individuals or groups as our units of analysis and whether to collect data at one or several points in time. The decisions that we make about these design elements will affect our ability to draw causal conclusions in our analysis.

Units of analysis: the level of social life on which the research question is focused, such as individuals, groups, towns, or nations. In most sociological and psychological studies, the units of analysis are individuals.

Levels of analysis: from the most micro (small) to the most macro (largest). Conclusions about processes at the individual level (micro) should be based on individual-level data. Conclusions about group-level processes (macro) should be based on data collected about groups.

Ecological fallacy In most cases, when this rule is violated, we can be misled about the existence of an association between two variables. A researcher who draws conclusions about individual-level processes from group-level data could be making what is termed an ecological fallacy.

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Reductionist fallacy On the other hand, when data about individuals are used to make inferences about group-level processes, a problem occurs that can be thought of as the mirror image of the ecological fallacy: the reductionist fallacy, also known as reductionism, or the individualist fallacy.

But is it ethical? Research distorted by political or personal pressures to find particular outcomes or to achieve the most marketable results is unlikely to be carried out in an open and honest fashion. Openness about research procedures and results goes hand in hand with honesty in research design. Openness is also essential if researchers are to learn from the work of others.

The uses of science Scientists must consider the uses to which their research is put. Social scientists who conduct research for organizations and agencies may face additional difficulties when the organization, not the researcher, controls the final report and the publicity it receives.

Research on people Whenever we interact with other people as social scientists we must give paramount importance to the rational concerns and emotional needs that will shape their responses to our actions. It is here that ethical research practice begins, with the recognition that our research procedures involve people who deserve as much respect for their well-being as we do for ours.

Confidentiality Maintaining confidentiality is a key ethical obligation. This means obtaining informed consent. To be informed, consent must be given by persons who are competent to consent, have consented voluntarily, are fully informed about the research, and have comprehended what they have been told

Other ethical issues The potential of withholding treatment from some subjects, as is done in experiments with placebos. The extent to which ethical issues are a problem varies dramatically with research designs. Survey research creates few ethical problems. But experiments can put people in uncomfortable or embarrassing situations.

Institutional review boards (IRB) Federal regulations require that every institution that seeks federal funding for biomedical or behavioral research on human subjects have an institutional review board (IRB) that reviews research proposals. IRBs at universities and other agencies apply ethics standards that are set by federal regulations but can be expanded or specified by the IRB itself.