Galaxies What is a galaxy? How many stars are there in an average galaxy? About how many galaxies are there in the universe? What is the name of our galaxy?

Galaxy Gravitationally bound stars, gas, dust, neutron stars, black holes, etc. Billions of stars in a galaxy and billions of galaxies in the universe Milky Way: 1,000 LY thick and 100,000 LY across!

Types of Galaxies Elliptical: Spiral: Irregular:

Elliptical Galaxies

Spiral Galaxies

Note: There is no direct or simple evolutionary connection between the types of Galaxies. However, there is strong evidence that interactions BETWEEN Galaxies may drive galaxy evolution. X

VLA image at =90 cm ~45” resolution inner few degrees of the Galaxy Our, nearly Normal, Galaxy

Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN)‏ Normal Galaxies – one million to one trillion solar luminosities AGN - several hundreds of trillions of solar luminosities! –Spectrum is not black body! What does this mean?

An Active Galaxy M87 HST Image M87 Distance = 15 Mpc Jet length = 2 kpc

Cygnus A – prototypical radio galaxy -- FR II Carilli et al.

Components of an AGN Core Lobe Jet Counter-Jet Hot spot “core” contains the central engine 30 kpc

AGN What is the power source that generates such enormous luminosities in AGNs?

AGN Energy Source Rapidly varying intensity => small size High luminosity and small size => supermassive black hole Billions of solar masses! Consumes entire stars! (ANIMATION)‏

Cosmic Distance Scale Closest galaxy: Andromeda – 2.5 million light years away! “Standard Candles” Extremely bright events with well-known luminosities Can you think of an example of such an event?

Cosmic Distance Scale “Standard Candles” Extremely bright events with well-known luminosities Ex. Type Ia (carbon- detonation) supernovae Works out to ~ 3 billion light years! Recall: Apparent Brightness = Luminosity/Distance^2

Structures of Galaxies Groups A few to a few dozen galaxies bound together by their combined gravity. On intermediate scales, galaxies form identifiable structures. Local Group

Clusters Largest (known) gravitationally bound structures - typically containing thousands of galaxies. The Virgo Cluster of about 2500 galaxies (central part shown). The center of the Hercules Cluster

Superclusters Larger structures made up of clusters and groups. 10,000's of galaxies. The Local Supercluster consists of the Virgo Cluster, the Local Group and several other groups.

Rotation of the Disk Sun moves at 225 km/sec around center. An orbit takes 240 million years. Stars closer to center take less time to orbit. Stars further from center take longer. The "rotation curve" of the Milky Way => rotation not rigid like a phonograph record or a merry-go-round. Rather, "differential rotation". Over most of disk, rotation velocity is roughly constant.

Cosmological Structure? We have seen that galaxies are organized into clusters and superclusters on intermediate scales in the universe. How is matter distributed in the universe on the very largest scales?

No Structure on Largest Scales (Galaxies distributed fairly uniformly)‏ Surprising given observations of Groups, clusters, and superclusters on smaller scales Cosmological Principle Universe is homogeneous and isotropic Homogeneity => ? Isotropy => ?

No Structure on Largest Scales (Galaxies distributed fairly uniformly)‏ Surprising given structure on smaller scales Cosmological Principle: Universe is homogeneous and isotropic Homogeneity => universe has no edge Isotropy => universe has no center

Olbers` Paradox If the universe is homogeneous, isotropic, infinite, and unchanging, then the night sky should be as bright as the sun. Why isn't it?

The universe is expanding! => Assumption that universe is unchanging is incorrect. => Doesn’t matter whether universe is finite or infinite, we only see a finite part. => Light from objects greater than 14 billion light years away has not had time to reach us!

Cosmological Scales How do we know that the universe is expanding?

Almost all galaxies exhibit show redshifted spectral lines => they are receding from us! Size of universe is not static, nor shrinking due to influence of gravity. Universe is expanding.

Redshift or recessional velocity is proportional to distance: the farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is receding. V = H 0 x D (Hubble's Law)‏ velocity (km / sec) Distance (Mpc)‏ Hubble's Constant (km / sec / Mpc)‏ Or graphically... Current estimate: H 0 = km/sec/Mpc 1 pc ~ 3 Light Years

Hubble Expansion Analogy 1 Mpc6 Mpc12 Mpc 2 Mpc12 Mpc24 Mpc Accuracy increases with distance. The farther out, the faster the expansion. Works for any chosen point of reference. As the ruler cools, all points converge. 1 pc ~ 3 Light Years

The Fate of the Universe What property determines the ultimate fate of the universe?

Affect of Density on the Universe

Density Determines the Eventual Fate of the Universe How is the expansion rate changing with time? Will the universe expand forever? What is it that is causing the expansion of the universe to accelerate?

Question The spectrum of an AGN is _____.  A) mainly due to starlight  B) very dim  C) non-blackbody  D) highly stable

Question Hubble's law tells us that the ______.  A) closer a galaxy is, the faster it moves away  B) farther a galaxy is, the faster it moves away  C) farther a galaxy is, the slower it moves away  D) farther a galaxy is, the larger it is

Question Isotropy implies that the universe has no _____.  A) center  B) curvature  C) horizon  D) edge