Review—urban planning from last week

Chandigarh Assembly Building

Chandigarh, rock garden

The Vision, some Issues Notion of a “public” space and “green” space run into problems of social access –Class issues of “leisure time” and transport Some designs not suited to the ecology of the regions in which they are placed –Problems with cooling systems/resource use –Notions of cultural comfort zones –In green spaces, issues of irrigation, imported species and daily care Disregard for the “low-tech” or geographically adapted, but devalued forms of building

Green Revolution and Social Change Indian and Pakistani Punjab, c.1960s-90s

Green Revolution in S. Asia India and Pakistan both welcomed Green- Revolution technology soon after Independence –Attempt to reach food security at a time of rapid population growth and food scarcity following independence Major site for each country was the former province of Punjab-due to its historical profile –Already had been a site for such governmental agricultural experiments such as the canal colonies –Large presence of “peasant” castes and tribes believed to be entrepreneurial –Consistent supply of irrigation water and good roads

Northern Pakistan

Northern India

Inputs necessary for G-R crops Consistent availability of irrigation Nitrogen-heavy chemical fertilizers Soil with good drainage High-yielding varieties of dwarf wheat (from Mexico) and rice (Philippines) Use of machines such as tractors, threshers, electric pumps Bigger farms

Punjab v. other areas as sites of G- R In Pakistan, Punjab is the only viable choice due to issues of irrigation/water In India, Punjab is also considered ideal, Bhakra Nangal dam project underway Uttar Pradesh is also seen as viable area –Problems of small-size holdings Gujrat emerges as a possible third choice by the 1970s –Operation “Flood” or the “white revolution”

Government local investment Other than irrigation projects to ensure the needed water supplies, India and Pakistan also invest in the following: –New ag. Universities with programs in genetics, crop development –Gov. lending schemes to provide money for mechanization, seeds, fertilizers –In India renewed interest in Co-operative societies to provide micro-finance and harvest sale, distributions –Better roads and storage facilities

Initial Success At first the pay-off from both projects appeared to be substantial –Food grain yields increase by some 48% –India and Pakistan become food self-sufficient and even make modest exports by late 1980s –Rural and urban incomes in G-R areas climb –Per capita caloric intake increases by 20% 1980s-2000s By 1990s yields begin to decrease from averages of 2.7 % to 2% –Issues of land quality and fluctuating water supplies –Prices of agricultural goods and inputs become unaffordable for many farmers By early 2000s economists and other scholars begin to question the mixed results of G-R changes

Roots of Problems in Indian Agriculture Small farm size, population pressure on land –50% of farms less than 3 acres (avg. 5 acres) –1/3 of peasants are landless laborers –3/5 of crops are food grains, farmers retain 60-70% for their own use Water table dropping to dangerous levels due to over-tapping of aquifers past re-chargeable levels Rising level of agrarian debts drives out smaller farmers, w/o inputs productivity declines Competition from subsidized industrialized farmers in US,Europe, Latin America

In Pakistan, similar problems Although the Pakistani gov. under Gen. Ayub, Zulficar Bhutto, and Gen. Musharaf has attempted to break down large farms, larger estates have survived and smaller farms continue to disappear Problems with drought and water supplies Worsening problems with soil alkalization Rural unemployment and underemployment remain large concerns

Water logged soil (l), salinization (r)

Political structures and G-R In both areas, local governments have committed to subsidizing electricity and water –Local parties seek agrarian votes in India, good relationships with rural magnates in Pakistan New wealth in both countries associated with new political formations and sometimes with political instability –Punjab militancy of 1980s-90s (India); ethnic tensions in Pakistan—Punjab v. Sind Prosperity for the mid-to-top level of farmers obscures worsening debt and income situation of majority of poorer farmers Remains unclear if gains will be sustainable

Issues to Consider for the future: Growing population continues to be an important concern in both countries—land is already under heavy population pressure Water scarcity in both countries growing— –aging canals/dams have less capacity due to silt build up –S. Indian rivers have less flow –Growing drought concerns in Pakistan –Ground water scarcity growing in both countries Even if food production can be sustained, affordability and access lead to food insecurity for poor Rising fuel costs a concern even for wealthy farmers