TELEVISION and the Power of Visual Culture

EARLY TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS  Late 1800s: cathode ray tube  1880’s: Nipkow’s scanning disk  1920’s: Zworykin’s iconoscope  1920’s: Farnsworth’s image dissector tube  1930: Farnsworth patents first electronic television  Sarnoff buys the patent--introduces TV at the 1939 NY World’s Fair

Early TV broadcasting: 1940s  1941: ten stations on VHF band  108 stations by 1948 (major cities only)  FCC concerned about frequency allocation  FCC FREEZE on new licenses  Freeze lifted in 1952: 400 stations apply for and are granted licenses

SINGLE SPONSORSHIP  Early TV programs usually conceived, produced and supported by one sponsor  Shows were extended advertisements  Sponsors, not networks, had total control over content

How networks gained control of programming  Increased program length (raised production costs for sponsors)  New concept of “magazine” programming, with sales of spot ads  Introduction of “Spectaculars” (TV specials) with multiple sponsors  Quiz Show Scandal ( )

Changes in TV industry (late 1950s)  Networks moved entertainment divisions to Hollywood  Network news operations (information divisions) remained in New York

TV’S INFORMATION CULTURE  Nightly news began in 1948 (Camel News Caravan, NBC)  modeled after radio news  primarily a verbal report by an authoritative male anchorperson  images provided support  15-minute format

TV’s ENTERTAINMENT CULTURE: THE GOLDEN AGE OF TELEVISION  Situation/domestic comedy  Variety shows/sketches  Anthology dramas  Episodic drama series  Continuing serials

HOW ARE PROGRAMS PRODUCED AND DISTRIBUTED?  Programs created by film studios and independent production companies  Programs licensed to networks for a licensing fee (for 2 airings)  Networks sell ad slots to advertisers  Production companies lose money on network airing, but recoup it in syndication (deficit financing)

DISTRIBUTION of TV Shows  Networks send national programming to affiliate stations  Each network has affiliates  Network ownership of affiliates (O&O’s) was limited by FCC  Local affiliates sell local ad time  Affiliates have local control and choice

SYNDICATION of TV Programs  Local TV stations and cable firms can buy syndicated programs  They acquire exclusive local market rights for specific length of time  Syndicated programs dominate hours outside prime time (fringe time)

DECLINE of the NETWORK ERA  TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES  GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS  DEVELOPMENT OF NEW NETWORKS

How many new channels are possible? Invent a new cable channel, which will  Fill a clearly defined niche  Draw an audience demographically profitable for the advertisers who will pay for the channel’s operation

Development of Early Cable Technology  Devised by appliance store dealers and electronics firms, 1940s  Need to get TV programming in rural, remote areas  built antenna relay towers in remote rural communities, ran wires to homes

CATV: Community Antenna Television  first small cable systems  in communities where mountains or tall buildings blocked broadcast signals  served 10% of USA, with 12 channels  Advantages: no over-the-air interference, increased channel capacity

How Do Cable Systems Work?  Headend: computerized nerve center  downlinks program channels from satellite  relays programming through coaxial or fiber-optic cables attached to utility poles  signals run through drop lines into homes through converter boxes

FCC and CABLE REGULATION, 1972  Must-carry rules: required cable operators to carry all local TV broadcasts  Limited number of distant commercial stations carried  Mandate for public access channels and leased channels

CABLE TV’s AMBIGUOUS REGULATORY STATUS  WHO holds jurisdiction over wired television?  Is it broadcasting, or a public utility (a common carrier)?

Cable Act of 1984  represented more support and protection for cable industry  ended rate regulation and must-carry rules  cable subscription charges skyrocketed  cable systems began dropping PBS, local and independent stations

Cable Act of 1992  FCC and Congress re-instated rate regulations  must-carry or retransmission consent options for local commercial broadcasters

TELECOMMUNICATIONS ACT of 1996  first major change since 1934, finally incorporating cable under federal regulation  removed market barriers between phone companies, long-distance carriers and cable operators  re-affirmed must-carry rules to protect local broadcasters  lifted federal rate regulations for large cable systems

CNN Revolutionizes TV News  24-hour TV news channel, 1980, Turner Broadcasting  1982: Turner launched HEADLINE NEWS channel as well  lost money until 1985  emerged as major news competitor during Persian Gulf War, 1991, with 24- hour coverage

The CNN “formula”  emphasizes news itself rather than celebrity anchors  24-hour format allowed unprecedented viewer access  delivers timely news in greater detail  offers live, unedited continuous coverage of breaking events  emphasizes international news

MUSIC TELEVISION NETWORK (MTV)  1981, Warner Communications (bought by Viacom in 1985)  Global offspring and strong international presence: MTV Asia, MTV Europe, MTV Brazil, MTV Japan, MTV Latino

CNN AND MTV  In addition to the changes CNN and MTV have made to US culture, they are also seen in many other parts of the world. What changes might they be making in the cultures of other countries? Do you see them as positive or negative in a global context?

Controversies in TV Programming  Violence: Necessary?  Racial and Gender Stereotypes  Absence of People of Color  Superficiality of News Coverage  Lack of Creative Programs for Children  Impact of Excessive Viewing on Both Children and Adults