Prepared by Jeffrey W. Grimm Western Washington University

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Prepared by Jeffrey W. Grimm Western Washington University PowerPoint Presentation for Biopsychology, 8th Edition by John P.J. Pinel Prepared by Jeffrey W. Grimm Western Washington University This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

How Much Do You Need to Sleep? Chapter 14 Sleep, Dreaming, and Circadian Rhythms How Much Do You Need to Sleep? Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

How Much Sleep Do We Need? The vast amount of time spent sleeping suggests that sleep has a significant biological function Most people sleep over 175,000 hours in their lifetime Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Three Standard Physiological Measures of Sleep Electroencephalogram (EEG) Reveals “brainwaves” Electrooculogram (EOG) Records eye movements seen during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep Electromyogram (EMG) Detects loss of activity in neck muscles during some sleep stages Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Four Stages of Sleep EEG Alpha waves Bursts of 8- to 12-Hz EEG waves Eyes closed, preparing to sleep EEG voltage increases and frequency decreases as one progresses from stage 1 through 2, 3, and 4 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Four Stages of Sleep EEG Continued Similar to awake EEG, but slower Low-voltage, high-frequency Stage 2 K complexes – one large negative (upward deflection) wave followed by one large positive wave Sleep spindles – bursts of 12-14 Hz waves Stages 3 and 4 – delta waves, large and slow Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 14.2 The EEG of alert wakefulness, the EEG that precedes sleep onset, and the four stages of sleep EEG. Each trace is about 10 seconds long. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Four Stages of Sleep EEG Continued Progress to stage 4 sleep and then back to stages 3, 2, and (emergent) stage 1 Emergent stage 1 differs from initial stage 1 REMs Loss of body core muscle tone Progress through sleep stages in 90-minute cycles Durations of emergent stage 1 periods lengthen as night progresses Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 14.3 The course of EEG stages during a typical night’s sleep and the relation of emergent stage 1 EEG to REMs and lack of tone in core muscles. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Four Stages of Sleep EEG Continued Emergent stage 1 sleep = REM sleep All other stages = Non-REM (NREM) sleep Stages 3 + 4 = slow-wave sleep (SWS) During REM sleep: REMs, loss of core muscle tone, low-amplitude/high-frequency EEG, increased cerebral and autonomic activity, muscles may twitch, penile erection Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. REM Sleep and Dreaming 80% of awakenings from REM yield reports of story-like dreams External stimuli may be incorporated into dreams Dreams run on real time Everyone dreams Penile erections are not a result of erotic dreams Sleepwalking and talking are less likely to occur while dreaming Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Interpretation of Dreams Freud’s explanation: dreams are triggered by unacceptable repressed wishes Manifest dreams – what we experience Latent dreams – the underlying meaning No evidence for this Activation-Synthesis Modern alternative to Freud’s explanation of dreams Dreams due to cortex’s attempt to make sense of random brain activity (Hobson, 1989) Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Why Do We Sleep, and Why Do We Sleep When We Do? Recuperation theories Sleep is needed to restore homeostasis Wakefulness causes a deviation from homeostasis Adaptation theories Sleep is the result of an internal timing mechanism Sleep evolved to protect us from the dangers of the night Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Comparative Analysis of Sleep All mammals and birds sleep – must have an important function Not a special higher-order human function Not necessarily needed in large quantities No clear relationship between species’ sleep time and activity level Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Effects of Sleep Deprivation It is difficult, if not impossible, to separate the effects of stressors used to prevent sleep from the effects of lost sleep Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Effects of Sleep Deprivation Continued Recuperation theories predict: Long periods of wakefulness will result in disturbances Disturbances will get worse as deprivation continues After deprivation, much of the missed sleep will be regained Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Two Classic Sleep-Deprivation Case Studies Sleep-deprived students By the third night, subject found desire for sleep overpowering Randy Gardner Stayed awake for 11 days Only slept 14 hours the first night after the study Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Experimental Studies of Sleep Deprivation in Humans Little effect of sleep deprivation: Logical deduction, critical thinking Physical strength and motor performance Larger effect of sleep deprivation: executive function (prefrontal cortex) Assimilating changing information Updating plans and strategies Innovative, lateral, insightful thinking Reference memory Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Experimental Studies of Sleep Deprivation in Humans Continued 3-4 hours of deprivation in one night Increased sleepiness Disturbances displayed on written tests of mood Poor performance on tests of vigilance 2-3 days of continuous deprivation Experience microsleeps, naps of 2-3 seconds Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sleep-Deprivation Studies with Laboratory Animals Carousel apparatus used to deprive rats of sleep When the experimental rat’s EEG indicates sleep, the chamber floor moves – if the rat does not awaken, it falls into water Yoked controls – subjected to the same floor rotations Experimental rats typically die after several days Postmortem studies reveal the extreme stress experienced by the experimental rats Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 14.5 The carousel apparatus used to deprive an experimental rat of sleep while a yoked control rat is exposed to the same number and pattern of disk rotations. The disk on which both rats rest rotates every time the experimental rat has a sleep EEG. If the sleeping rat does not awaken immediately, it is deposited in the water. (Based on Rechtschaffen et al., 1983.) Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

REM-Sleep Deprivation Two consistent effects Proceed more rapidly into REM as REM deprivation increases REM rebound – more time spent in REM when deprivation is over REM rebound suggests that REM sleep serves a special function Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Purpose of REM Processing of explicit memories? Inconsistent findings Antidepressant REM-blocking drugs do not interfere with memory Default theory: it is difficult to remain in NREM sleep Nycamp and others (1998) awoke sleepers in REM for 15 minutes. Result: no sleepiness or REM rebound the next day REM-blocking drugs cause periods of wakefulness Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sleep Deprivation Increases Sleep Efficiency After sleep deprivation, most of lost stage 4 is regained and SWS is increased Short sleepers get as much SWS as long sleepers Naps without SWS do not decrease the night’s sleep Gradual reductions in sleep time lead to decreases in stages 1 and 2 Little sleepiness produced with repeated REM awakenings, unlike SWS Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Circadian Sleep Cycles Circadian rhythms – “about a day” Virtually all physiological, biochemical, and behavioral processes show some circadian rhythmicity Zeitgebers – environmental cues that entrain circadian cycles Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Free-Running Circadian Sleep-Wake Cycles Remove zeitgebers – still see circadian sleep-wake cycles? Free-running periods vary, but are usually constant within a subject Most are longer than 24 hours - ~ 25 What happens on days when you don’t need to get up? Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Jet Lag and Shift Work Jet lag – zeitgebers are accelerated or decelerated Shift work – zeitgebers unchanged, but sleep-wake cycle must be altered Both produce a variety of deficits Can the effects be prevented or minimized? Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Reducing Jet Lag Gradually shift sleep-wake cycle prior to travel Administer post-flight treatments to promote the needed shift Phase advance following east-bound travel with intense light early in the morning Hamster studies suggest a good early morning workout may also help Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

A Circadian Clock in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) Lesions do not reduce sleep time, but they abolish its circadian periodicity Exhibits electrical, metabolic, and biochemical activity that can be entrained by the light-dark cycle Transplant SCN, transplant sleep-wake cycle Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Neural Mechanisms of Entrainment Cutting the optic nerves before the optic chiasm eliminated the ability of the light-dark cycle to entrain circadian rhythms However, cutting after the chiasm did not have this effect Later the retinohypothalamic tracts were identified Leave the optic chiasm and project to the adjacent suprachiasmatic nuclei Mechanisms of entrainment of SCN cells to light-dark cycle Rare retinal ganglion cells with no rods or cones Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Genetics of Circadian Rhythms Several mammalian circadian genes have been identified Some of these have also been identified in other species of other evolutionary ages Expression of these genes follows a circadian pattern Most of the gene expression appears to be entrained by activity of the SCN Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Evidence of Other Clocks Some circadian rhythms intact after SCN lesion SCN lesions do not eliminate the ability of all environmental stimuli (such as food or water availability) to entrain circadian rhythms Like SCN cells, cells in other parts of the body exhibit free-running circadian rhythms in tissue cultures Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Four Areas of the Brain Involved in Sleep Two areas of the hypothalamus: Economo found that the posterior hypothalamus and the anterior hypothalamus were related to excessive sleep or inability to sleep, respectively Findings were in patients that had encephalitis lethargica Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Four Areas of the Brain Involved in Sleep Two areas of the brainstem: Cerveau isolé (“isolated forebrain”) preparation – produced by severing cat brainstem between the superior and inferior colliculi, resulting in continuous SWS Encéphale isolé (“isolated brain”) preparation – produced by transsection caudal to the colliculi, resulting in normal sleep cycle Therefore, wakefulness depends on the function of the reticular formation, or “reticular activating system” Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. FIGURE 14.11 Four pieces of evidence that the reticular formation is involved in sleep. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Reticular REM-Sleep Nuclei Similarities between REM and wakefulness suggest that the same brain area might be involved in both REM sleep is controlled by nuclei in the caudal reticular formation, each controlling a different aspect of REM Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Drugs That Affect Sleep Drugs that increase sleep (hypnotic drugs): benzodiazepines – Valium, Librium Most commonly prescribed hypnotic drugs Effective in the short term Complications Tolerance Cessation leads to insomnia Addiction Use leads to next day drowsiness Increase of stage 2 sleep while decrease of stage 4 and REM Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Drugs That Affect Sleep Continued Drugs that decrease sleep (antihypnotic drugs): stimulants and tricyclic antidepressants Both increase activity of catecholamines Act preferentially on REM – may totally suppress REM with little effect on total sleep time Side effects Loss of appetite Addiction Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Melatonin Synthesized from serotonin in the pineal gland Melatonin levels follow circadian rhythms controlled by the SCN Pineal gland triggers seasonal reproductive changes in fish, birds, reptiles, and amphibians – human function is unclear Melatonin is not a sleep aid, but may be used to shift circadian rhythms Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Sleep Disorders Insomnia – disorders of sleep initiation and maintenance Hypersomnia – disorders of excessive sleep or sleepiness REM-sleep dysfunctions ~30% of respondents report sleep-related problems – far fewer truly have a problem Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sleep Disorders: Insomnia Iatrogenic – physician-created Consequence of sleeping pill use, for example Alternative treatment: sleep restriction Sleep apnea – stop breathing during the night leads to repeated awakenings. Two types: Obstructive – obstruction of respiratory passages by muscle spasms or atonia Central – CNS fails to initiate breaths Most commonly seen in males, the overweight, and the elderly Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sleep Disorders: Insomnia Continued Periodic limb movement disorder – twitching of the body, usually the legs, during sleep. Most sufferers are not aware of why they don’t feel rested Restless legs – uneasiness in legs that prevents sleep Both are often treated with benzodiaze-pines Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Hypersomnia – Narcolepsy Severe daytime sleepiness and repeated brief daytime sleeping - “sleep attacks” Cataplexy – loss of muscle tone while awake Sleep paralysis – paralyzed while falling asleep or upon waking Hypnagogic hallucinations – dreaming while awake Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Hypersomnia – Narcolepsy Continued Appears to be an abnormality in the mechanisms that triggers REM Narcoleptics enter directly into REM Dreaming and loss of muscle tone while awake – suggest REM intruding into wakefulness May be due to genetic orexin deficiency and environmental factors Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

REM-Sleep-Related Disorders Narcolepsy REM without atonia – able to act out dreams – possibly caused by damage to the nucleus magnocellularis or its output Case history: man with assumed damage to caudal reticular formation had no REM sleep and no ill effects Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Effects of Long-Term Sleep Reduction Differences between short and long sleepers? No consistent differences Long-term reduction of nightly sleep? When reduced to 6h/night subjects often reported daytime sleepiness Otherwise no ill effects Overall sleep was more efficient Effects of napping? Some evidence that polyphasic sleep is more efficient Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Effects of Shorter Sleep Times on Health Some evidence suggests that 5-7 hours/night of sleep is correlated with greater longevity Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.