Origins of the Gender Gap: Pre-College and College Influences on Differences Between Men and Women Linda J. Sax Casandra E. Harper University of California Los Angeles

The Gender Gap Gender differences continue to receive attention  Course taking  Career aspirations  Self-confidence  Physical and psychological health

Nature vs. Nurture Longstanding debates regarding the origin of gender differences  Innate differences?  Gender-based socialization?

The Role of College Do colleges play a role in reinforcing gender differences? Prior research on college students offers few clues  Most studies are descriptive, cross-sectional  Roots of gender difference are largely unexplored

Research Question To what extent are gender differences observed at the end of college attributable to: (a) Pre-college gender differences? (b) Differential college experiences of women and men?

Sample Data drawn from:  1994 Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) Freshman Survey  1998 College Student Survey (CSS)  N = 17,637 (10,901 Women; 6,736 Men)  204 Institutions

42 Dependent Variables  Student Typologies  Academics  Political Engagement and Orientation  Views  Self-Ratings  Physical and Psychological Well-Being  Goals  Degree Aspirations/Attainment and Career Choice  Self-Changes  Satisfaction

Independent Variables Gender (1=male, 2=female) Pre-College Variables  Pretest (if applicable)  Family background  High school experiences College Variables  Institutional characteristics  Peer measures  Major field  College experiences

Analysis (1) Gender force-entered at first step Indicates whether the difference in women’s & men’s score on the DV is significant at p<.0001 (2) Standardized regression coefficient (“Beta”) for gender monitored as each new independent variable enters the equation If Beta “change” is significant at p<.01, indicates whether gender differences on the outcome can be “explained” by gender differences in the newly-entered variable.

Results Significant gender differences observed for 32 of 42 dependent variables Women score higher on…  College GPA, Feeling overwhelmed, Commitment to social activism, Liberal political attitudes, Interest in education and nursing, etc. Men score higher on…  Academic self-confidence, Self-rated competitiveness, Physical and emotional self- confidence, Leadership orientation, Interest in science and engineering, Belief in traditional gender roles, etc.

What accounts for senior-year gender differences? 5 outcomes:  Gender differences became nonsignificant when pre-college variables were controlled 9 outcomes:  Gender differences became nonsignificant when pre-college AND college variables were controlled 18 outcomes:  Gender differences remain significant past all controls

Example #1: Self-Rated Physical Health Women’s lower ratings on physical health explained by:  Lower scores on the pretest  Lower scores on self-rated emotional health  Higher stress levels  Less time spent exercising or playing sports

Example #2: College GPA Women’s higher grades explained (in part) by:  Better grades earned in high school  Higher stress levels  Higher perceived support from faculty

Example #3: Leadership Orientation Men’s higher scores on leadership orientation explained (in part) by:  Higher self-rated competitiveness  Greater political engagement  More frequently challenging professors in the classroom

Summary Among senior-year gender differences…  Nearly half could be completely explained by other variables  More than half could not be explained entirely by other variables Gender differences are typically explained by pre-college variables

Conclusion What other variables (not included in the present study) account for gender differences in college? Though colleges appear to play a minor role in producing gender differences, what role should they play in addressing them?