Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 Management and Organisational Behaviour 7th Edition PART 4 The Individual

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 Management and Organisational Behaviour 7th Edition CHAPTER 9 Individual Differences

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.2 The changing nature & scope of managing individuals In the 21st century there are new demands for an unpredictable future – There is ever-increasing change There are flatter, matrix-based structures There are new work methods More need to balance family demands & work Increased consumerism

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.3 Embracing diversity – an organisation’s perspective We ought to reflect the style, taste & opinions of our consumers, who represent sexes, all colours & creeds, all ages & disabilities. Cultural diversity will strengthen the quality of the company & will make us much more outward- looking. Barry Gibson, Littlewoods

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.4 Defining diversity Relating & working with people who hold different perspectives & views, bringing different qualities to the workplace Diversity consists of visible & non-visible differences which will include sex, age, background, race, disability, personality and workstyle. Kandola & Fullerton

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.5 Managing diversity Does not mean managers champion their own values & try & shift other people’s values to conform & match their own Does mean encouraging individuality & at the same time expecting group co-operation & team work

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.6 How do individuals differ? Ethnic origin Physique Gender Early family experiences Social & cultural factors National culture Motivation Attitudes Personality traits & types Intelligence & abilities Perception

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.7 Personality Stable characteristics which explain why a person behaves in a particular way Personality characteristics include: Independence Conscientiousness Agreeableness Self-control

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.8 Does a person’s personality remain constant? Figure 9.1

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.9 Personality studies Nomothetic approach Ideographic approach

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.10 Nomothetic approach Concerned with the collection of group data Identification of personality traits & production of effective measurement of the traits in order to draw comparisons between individuals Tends to view environmental & social influences as minimal & views, personality as consistent Approach claims that personality is largely inherited & resistant to change

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.11 Ideographic approach Concerned with understanding the uniqueness of an individual & the development of the self concept Personality development is viewed as a process & is open to change Individuals are regarded as responding to the environment & people around them & see the dynamics of the interactions as playing a critical part in shaping personality The measurement of traits is seen as largely inappropriate in that one person’s responses may not be comparable to another person

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.12 Theoretical approaches Eysenck’s theory Cattel’s theory

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.13 Eysenck’s personality type Figure 9.2

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.14 Cattell’s theory Three sources for the collection of personality data: 1.Life record data (L data) – ratings by trained observers 2.Self rating questionnaires (Q data) – responses to a questionnaire which measures personality traits 3.Test data (T data) – observation collected in specific situation tests

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.15 Cattell’s theory Identifies two personality traits: Surface traits – which seem to cluster together consistently Source traits – which seem to underlie & determine the traits which are likely to surface into behaviour

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.16 Theoretical approaches - idiographic Theories that are typical of the ideographic approach: Carl Rodgers – personality is embedded within personal relationships GH Mead – unable to separate the notion of an individual’s personality from the concept of society C Cooley – emotion & sensation held of ‘self’ is instinctive but is developed by experience

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.17 Erikson’s eight stages of personality development Table 9.5 Source: Adapted from Erikson, E.H. Identity and The Life Cycle, Norton (1980) Worksheet Table Appendix. © 1980 by W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. © 1959 by International Universities Press, Inc. Used by permission of W.W. Norton & Company Inc.

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.18 Freud – psychoanalytic approach This approach emphasised the importance of – Early childhood experiences, particularly parental relationships & dealing with trauma Different levels of consciousness & the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour Understanding the whole person in relation to their past

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.19 A representation of Freud’s theory Figure 9.3

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.20 Freud’s personality stages Id – consists of the instinctive, hedonistic part of self Superego – the conscience of the self, the part of our personality which is influenced by significant others in our life Ego – has to make sense of the internal conflict in our mind between the id & superego & the external world

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.21 Criticisms against Freud’s theory It is not replicable & his arguments were circular Samples used were atypical It is subjective & unscientific The heavy emphasis on early childhood makes it highly deterministic It disregards later development & changes

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.22 Freud Slips of the tongue Slips of the tongue illustrate the conflict that can exist between our mental forces & the struggle we have in suppressing our desires Slips of the tongue represent ‘minor eruptions of unconscious processing’ Reason

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.23 Freud – applications to organisational behaviour Understanding stress at work Defence mechanisms – Regression – adopting childhood patterns of behaviour Fixation – inflexible & rigid behaviour or attitudes Rationalisation – elaborate ‘covering up’ of ideas/motive Projection – attributing feelings & motives to others

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.24 Jung’s level of personality Three levels of personality: Conscious level (daily, reality) Unconscious level (contains our own unique complexes) Collective unconscious level (store of universal & evolutionary experiences)

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.25 Cognitive theory Kelly’s theory is based on the consideration of the whole person in terms of their perceptions, attitudes & goals Personality is the individual’s way of construing & experimenting with their world

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.26 Personality: its application in the workplace Organisations regard personality as being of key significance in decision-making Personality is taken into consideration at the selection interview Personality is a powerful determinant of a manager’s effectiveness

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.27 Stress Personality is a contributing factor in understanding stress Stress occurs when individuals feel that they are working outside their comfort zones The effects of stress differ – can energise or immobilise Every job has own stress fingerprint Cooper

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.28 Causes of stress Intrinsic to the job – working conditions, shift work, etc. Role in the organisation – overload, underload Relationships at work – particularly with the boss Career development – mid-life being a critical stage Organisational structure & climate – the extent of rules & regulations Home & work interface – particularly the growth of dual career families

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.29 Types of harassment Harassment is a type of direct discrimination if the victim can show that the behaviour caused injury to feelings. Sexual harassment Racial harassment

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.30 Is intelligence inherited Nativists – believe intelligence is mostly inherited (nature) Empiricists – believe that our environment shapes our behaviour & mental abilities (nurture) Galton suggests that genius runs in families & so intelligence must be inherited

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.31 Measuring intelligence Stanford Binet test Mental age X 100 = intelligence quotient Chronological (actual age)

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.32 A hierarchy of abilities Figure 9.5 Source: Adapted from P.E. Vernon, ‘The hierarchy of abilities’, in Wiseman, S. (ed.) Intelligence and Ability (first published 1967, reprinted 1968, 2nd edition 1973). This selection copyright © the Estate of Stephen Wiseman 1967, Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd.

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.33 G (general) factor Can be construed as having one dimension which is independent of any direct learning or experience Fluid intelligence – type of abstract reasoning ability which is free from cultural influences Crystallised intelligence – dependent on learning, cultural experiences & is part of our general understanding of the world around us Cattell

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.34 Guilford’s structure of the intellect model Figure 9.6 Source: J.P. Guilford, ‘Three faces of intellect’, in Wiseman, S. (ed.) Intelligence and Ability (first published 1967, reprinted 1968, 2nd edition 1973). This selection copyright © the Estate of Stephen Wiseman 1967, Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd.

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.35 Guilford’s structure of the intellect model Operation Evaluation Convergent production Divergent production Memory Cognition Units Classes Relations

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.36 Guilford’s structure of the intellect model Product The form in which the information is processed – Transformation Implications Figural

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.37 Emotional intelligence (EI) Expands classical view of intelligence to include emotional qualities of individuals Can predict top performance 18 competencies including items such as empathy, developing others, service orientation, change catalyst, initiative, adaptability, self-confidence Goldman

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.38 Psychological testing Tests are broadly divided by the British Psychological Society into – Tests of typical performance – an individual’s typical responses to given situations Tests of maximum performance – an individual’s ability to perform effectively under standard conditions

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.39 Why use psychological testing

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.40 Features of psychological testing Tests will comprise of standard tasks, or a set of questions with a standard means of obtaining the score A technical manual will explain what the test is measuring, how it was constructed, the procedures for administering, scoring and interpreting the test Details of the test’s validity & reliability

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.41 Limitations of the tests Can only sample behaviour at one moment in time Information provided is dependent on good testing practice & will only add further evidence to the decision-making process. It will not provide all the answers Due to nerves, the testee may not perform that well

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.42 Attitudes Provide a state of readiness or tendency to respond in a particular way Are learned through life and are embodied within our socialisation process

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.43 Functions of attitudes Attitudes can serve four main functions – Knowledge Expressive Instrumental Ego defensive Katz

Mullins: Management and Organisational Behaviour, 7th edition © Pearson Education Limited 2005 OHT 9.44 Differing perspectives on gender Figure 9.8 Source: Adapted from ‘Approaches to the Understanding of Women and Leadership’ in Understanding Gender and Organisations by Alvesson, M. and Due Billing, Y. Reproduced with permission from Sage Publications Ltd, 1997