What Motivates People to Work? Chapter Six What Motivates People to Work?

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Motivation Motivation can be defined as the process of arousing, directing, and maintaining behavior toward a goal Arousal: the energy behind our actions Direction: the choice of behavior made Maintenance: an individual’s willingness to continue to exert effort until a goal is met Motivation is not the same as performance, but it is an important contributing factor © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Needs-Goal Model of Motivation Drive Reduction Theories Needs: Physiological or Psychological deficiencies Drive: action toward the goal (incentive) Incentive: reduces drive of need © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Motive Types Primary Motives: Unlearned: everyone has these Physiological: hunger, thirst General (Stimulus) Motives: NOT Physiological: curiosity, activity, affection © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Motive Types Secondary Motives: Learned NOT Physiological Examples: Need for power Need for achievement Need for affiliation Need for security Need for status © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Work Motivation Content Theories (closely related to needs model – what motivates) Scientific Management: wage incentives Human Relations: working conditions Maslow: hierarchy of needs Hertberg: two factor theory (used critical incident methodology) Alderfer: ERG needs (existence, relatedness, growth) © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Need Hierarchy Theory (popularized by McGregor – Human side of the Enterprise) Physiological needs: The lowest-order needs, which involve satisfying fundamental biological drives, such as the needs for air, food, water, and shelter (extrinsic) Safety needs: The need to operate in an environment that is physically and psychologically safe and secure, free from threats of harm Social needs: The need to be affiliative -- that is, to be liked and accepted by others Esteem needs: The need to achieve success and have others recognize our accomplishments Self-actualization needs: The need to perform at one’s maximum level of creativity and become a valuable asset to one’s organization (intrinsic) © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Need Hierarchy Theory © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Process Theories Lewin and Tolman: expectancy theory Vroom (VIE): valence/expectancy theory Porter/Lawler: extension of VIE model (performance leads to satisfaction) © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Expectancy Theory (VIE – Vroom,1964) Expectancy theory claims that people will be motivated to exert effort on the job when they believe that doing so will help them achieve the things they want Components of motivation: Expectancy: The belief that one’s effort will affect performance Instrumentality: The belief that one’s performance will be rewarded Valence: The perceived value of the expected rewards © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Expectancy Theory (Porter/Lawler,1968) © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Expectancy Theory and Mood © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Contemporary Theories Adams: equity theory Homans: exchange theory Kelley: attribution/balance theory Rotter: locus of control Brehm: reactance theory © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Equity Theory Equity theory proposes that people are motivated to maintain fair, or equitable, relationships between themselves and others, and to avoid those relationships that are unfair, or inequitable To make judgments of equity, people compare themselves to others by focusing on two variables: Outcomes: What they get out of their jobs Pay, fringe benefits, prestige Inputs: The contributions they make to their jobs Time worked, effort exerted, units produced People make equity judgments by comparing their own outcome/input ratios to the outcome/input ratios of others © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Equity Theory © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Reactions to Inequity © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Goal-Setting Theory (Locke, 1968) The theory according to which a goal serves as a motivator because it causes people to compare their present capacity to perform with that required to succeed at the goal. We attain goals to satisfy emotions and desires There is an inherent purposefulness of behavior (Tolman) © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Goal-Setting Theory (Locke, 1968) Related Concepts: Goal Setting: The process of setting goals in a manner that motivates workers to raise their performance Self-Efficacy: One’s belief about being able to perform the task in question Goal Commitment: The extent to which people invest themselves in meeting a goal and determination to reach a goal strengthened by choice, publicness, explicitness © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

The Goal-Setting Process © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Effects of Commitment and Difficulty © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Setting Effective Goals Assign specific goals: People perform at higher levels when asked to meet a specific high-performance goal than when simply asked to “do their best,” or when no goal at all is assigned Assign difficult but acceptable goals Provide feedback concerning goal attainment Accepted goals or ‘owned’ goals © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Goal-Setting Effects © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Job Design Taylor: task design is most important element in Scientific Management (now called job engineering: specialization and standardization) 1950’s: Tom Watson, IBM, popularizes job enlargement and job rotation 1960’s and 1970’s: AT&T utilizes job enrichment with more job autonomy and more job responsibility © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Job Design Job design is the process of creating jobs that people desire to perform because they are so inherently appealing Job enlargement is the practice of giving employees more tasks to perform at the same level of responsibility and skill Job enrichment is the practice of giving employees more tasks to perform that require higher levels of responsibility and skill © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

© Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004 Job Design (cont.) The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) identifies how jobs can be designed to help people feel that they are doing meaningful and valuable work The Social Information Processing Approach (SIPA) social information influences jobholder’s perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors (satisfaction leads to performance) © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Job Enlargement and Enrichment © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Job Characteristics Model Core Job Dimensions (Hackman & Oldham, 1976) Skill variety is the extent to which a job requires using different skills and talents Task identity is the degree to which a job requires doing a whole task from beginning to end Task significance is the amount of impact a job is believed to have on others Autonomy is the extent to which employees have the freedom and discretion to plan, schedule, and carry out their jobs as desired Feedback is the extent to which the job allows people to have information about the effectiveness of their performance © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Job Characteristics Model Other Components Experienced meaningfulness of the work: the extent to which a job is considered to be highly important, valuable, and worthwhile Experienced responsibility: the extent to which employees feel as if they have control over their work efforts Knowledge of results: the extent to which employees understand how effectively they have performed Growth need strength: an individual’s need for personal growth and development (moderating variable) © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

The Job Characteristics Model © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004

Socialtechnical Design Interface among personal, social, and technological functioning QWL: Quality of work life determined by overall climate: ‘the way things are done around here’ Volvo project: autonomous work group’s General Food pet food plant: small work groups Today: Self-managed work teams © Copyright Prentice-Hall 2004