How People Learn Donald P. Buckley, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Biology Director of Instructional Technology, School of Health Sciences Quinnipiac University Apple Distinguished Educator Computerworld Smithsonian Laureate Donald P. Buckley, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Biology Director of Instructional Technology, School of Health Sciences Quinnipiac University Apple Distinguished Educator Computerworld Smithsonian Laureate

We Are History This is Our Revolution

Knowing The meaning of “knowing” has shifted from being able to repeat and remember information to being able to find and use it Herbert Simon Nobel Laureate The meaning of “knowing” has shifted from being able to repeat and remember information to being able to find and use it Herbert Simon Nobel Laureate

A Revolution in Education? 1. Disappointing literacies have provoked soul-searching 1. Disappointing literacies have provoked soul-searching Emergence of the Learning Paradigm 2. The Decade of the Brain: 2. The Decade of the Brain: the cognitive development of learning 3. Computing tools facilitate 3. Computing tools facilitate Simulation, data collection/analysis, & authoring Communication Formative Assessment Simulation, data collection/analysis, & authoring Communication Formative Assessment

But where do we start? Bransford, Brown and Cocking, 2000.

The core goal is: Learning with Understanding

Key Findings about Learning  Learning is constructive we must confront and build on the experiences and beliefs that students bring to their learning experiences  Students need knowledge to learn with understanding - our goal is making meaning  Students must develop metacognitive skills that are reflective and help them to gauge their progress toward making meaning …this is the gate to life-long learning  Learning is constructive we must confront and build on the experiences and beliefs that students bring to their learning experiences  Students need knowledge to learn with understanding - our goal is making meaning  Students must develop metacognitive skills that are reflective and help them to gauge their progress toward making meaning …this is the gate to life-long learning

Elements of Learning Environments Formative Assessment Formative Assessment Knowledge Centered Approaches Knowledge Centered Approaches Learning Centered Approaches Learning Centered Approaches Learning Situated In Social Context Learning Situated In Social Context Bransford, Brown and Cocking, 2000.

Teaching So That Students Learn with Understanding Learning is improved by being:  Learner-centered  Knowledge-centered  Assessment-centered  All situated within social context Learning is improved by being:  Learner-centered  Knowledge-centered  Assessment-centered  All situated within social context

Teaching So That Students Learn with Understanding Learning is improved by being:  Learner-centered  Knowledge-centered  Assessment-centered  All situated within social context Learning is improved by being:  Learner-centered  Knowledge-centered  Assessment-centered  All situated within social context

National Training Laboratory, Bethel Maine

Memory for Words versus Pictures  How well do we remember? Best: Pictures alone Next best: Pictures and Words Worst: Words alone  Different communication formats entail different learning opportunities, e.g. words Linear strings of concept elements Limited to 5-7 elements With overload, we loose the middle elements Then an individualistic synthesis  How well do we remember? Best: Pictures alone Next best: Pictures and Words Worst: Words alone  Different communication formats entail different learning opportunities, e.g. words Linear strings of concept elements Limited to 5-7 elements With overload, we loose the middle elements Then an individualistic synthesis

Gender Differences

The Biology of Personality

Where do brain-based learning principles begin?

A Neuron Firing - Cell Body and Axon

Learning involves neurons communicating signals - the synapse

Synaptic Networks

How does the brain learn?  Overproduction and cropping of synapses (early development …like sculpting a statue from rock)  Addition of new synapses (throughout life …like adding pieces to the complete statue)  Modification of synapses (Long Term Potentiation) (neurons fire easier after being modified by experience)  Overproduction and cropping of synapses (early development …like sculpting a statue from rock)  Addition of new synapses (throughout life …like adding pieces to the complete statue)  Modification of synapses (Long Term Potentiation) (neurons fire easier after being modified by experience)

To a large extent… the depth of learning depends on how extensive a cognitive engagement is...and how recurrent To a large extent… the depth of learning depends on how extensive a cognitive engagement is...and how recurrent

Emotions

Emotions and Learning Old view: logic and emotions are incongruent WRONG! Old view: logic and emotions are incongruent WRONG! emotions thinking learning

Emotions & Logic Emotions and logic work together: Logic sets the goal Emotion creates the passion to act on the goal therefore Emotion Pervades Logic Processing Emotions and logic work together: Logic sets the goal Emotion creates the passion to act on the goal therefore Emotion Pervades Logic Processing

Emotion Pervades Logic Evidence? Remove frontal-lobe areas: most intelligence is re-learned Remove the amygdala: devastating changes... loose creative play loose imagination loose key decision making processes loose nuances of emotion that drive: Art Humor Love Music Altruism Evidence? Remove frontal-lobe areas: most intelligence is re-learned Remove the amygdala: devastating changes... loose creative play loose imagination loose key decision making processes loose nuances of emotion that drive: Art Humor Love Music Altruism

Emotions Occupy The Brain’s Super Highway Emotions Occupy The Brain’s Super Highway

Emotions: What kind of cognitive engagement? Emotions: What kind of cognitive engagement? Emotions get high priority in processing (occupying the brain’s super highway) Therefore emotion-laden learning is well remembered Emotions heighten attention, activating & chemically stimulating the brain Emotions have own memory pathways Therefore, emotions act as the glue in learning & cognition Emotions get high priority in processing (occupying the brain’s super highway) Therefore emotion-laden learning is well remembered Emotions heighten attention, activating & chemically stimulating the brain Emotions have own memory pathways Therefore, emotions act as the glue in learning & cognition

How Does Memory Work?

Memory  Old interpretation: memories are records of the past stored for later recall  New interpretation: memory is a process for reconstructing a tangible interpretation of the past  Memory uses the same process used to imagine or to anticipate the future …reconstruction based on learned models  Old interpretation: memories are records of the past stored for later recall  New interpretation: memory is a process for reconstructing a tangible interpretation of the past  Memory uses the same process used to imagine or to anticipate the future …reconstruction based on learned models

What do we remember?  Even perception is an assembly processes …based on reconstruction  We build mental models of our experiences  We learn mostly patterns and themes  We usually don’t learn the details  So what are memories and where do the details go?  Even perception is an assembly processes …based on reconstruction  We build mental models of our experiences  We learn mostly patterns and themes  We usually don’t learn the details  So what are memories and where do the details go?

Memory is Interpretive  Mind is not a passive recorder of events  Storing & recalling memories are constructive & reconstructive activities People presented with events in a random sequence will reorder them during recall Recall words in a list (yes or no): sour-candy-sugar- bitter-good-taste-tooth-knife-honey-chocolate-cake-tart- pie …will remember sweet, but it's not on the list  The brain uses inference processing to relate events  Mind is not a passive recorder of events  Storing & recalling memories are constructive & reconstructive activities People presented with events in a random sequence will reorder them during recall Recall words in a list (yes or no): sour-candy-sugar- bitter-good-taste-tooth-knife-honey-chocolate-cake-tart- pie …will remember sweet, but it's not on the list  The brain uses inference processing to relate events

Memory of Experiences  When children are asked if a false event occurred… Immediate response = "no" Repeated discussions will change response By 12 weeks, fully elaborated recounts  Repeatedly listing words with adults… In repeated listings, words recalling non-experienced events map to the same regions of the brain as words for experienced events MRI reveals that Q&A about true and false events light up same parts of the brain  Experiences are constructive and don't necessarily reflect reality - Learning builds on past experience  When children are asked if a false event occurred… Immediate response = "no" Repeated discussions will change response By 12 weeks, fully elaborated recounts  Repeatedly listing words with adults… In repeated listings, words recalling non-experienced events map to the same regions of the brain as words for experienced events MRI reveals that Q&A about true and false events light up same parts of the brain  Experiences are constructive and don't necessarily reflect reality - Learning builds on past experience

Kinds of Memory  Declarative memory Facts and events mostly in hippocampus  Procedural or nondeclarative memory skills and other cognitive operations can't be represented in declarative sentences mostly in the neostriatum  Declarative memory Facts and events mostly in hippocampus  Procedural or nondeclarative memory skills and other cognitive operations can't be represented in declarative sentences mostly in the neostriatum

Kinds of Memory Explicit Implicit Semantic Episodic Procedural Reflexive Conditioned Emotional

Semantic (book-learning) Memory

Episodic (contextual) Memory Ask yourself: What were you doing when you learned that JFK had been shot? What did you have for dinner last night? Most of us can remember things that are situated in space or time...Episodic Memory Ask yourself: What were you doing when you learned that JFK had been shot? What did you have for dinner last night? Most of us can remember things that are situated in space or time...Episodic Memory

Episodic (contextual) Memory Episodic memory has: unlimited capacity, forms quickly and effortlessly, and is used naturally by everyone Our visual memory records both “what” and “where” Problem: contamination (similar contexts for different memories) Episodic memory has: unlimited capacity, forms quickly and effortlessly, and is used naturally by everyone Our visual memory records both “what” and “where” Problem: contamination (similar contexts for different memories)

How do we conduct critical inquiry?

study understanding defer judgement collect evidence BELIEF study understanding Hypothesis A Hypothesis B Hypothesis A Hypothesis B The Process of Critical Inquiry BELIEF This is how the brain seems to be wired!

Why?  The part of the brain that we use for critical inquiry seems to have evolved from part of the brain that we use for : Perception  Which draws lots of assumptions and makes lots of snap decisions in order for us to navigate though our daily existence  The part of the brain that we use for critical inquiry seems to have evolved from part of the brain that we use for : Perception  Which draws lots of assumptions and makes lots of snap decisions in order for us to navigate though our daily existence

Teaching So That Students Learn with Understanding Learning is improved by being:  Learner-centered  Knowledge-centered  Assessment-centered  All situated within social context Learning is improved by being:  Learner-centered  Knowledge-centered  Assessment-centered  All situated within social context

Comparison of Novices and Experts Novices versus Experts Left -brain Serial processing Scanning possibilities Superficial distracters Abstraction Left -brain Serial processing Scanning possibilities Superficial distracters Abstraction Right-brain Parallel processing Recognizing useful patterns Core concepts Perception Right-brain Parallel processing Recognizing useful patterns Core concepts Perception

How Experts Differ From Novices: Experts Notice Meaningful Patterns Not Noticed by Novices  Early hypothesis: experts and novices both think through all possible solutions, but with different efficiencies  Results: Neither novices or experts consider all possibilities Experts consider possibilities that have more value …how? Experts chunk the content differently  Early hypothesis: experts and novices both think through all possible solutions, but with different efficiencies  Results: Neither novices or experts consider all possibilities Experts consider possibilities that have more value …how? Experts chunk the content differently

Learning and Short Term Memory  Short term memory has a limited capacity  But the elements of short term memory can be: A fact Or an organized set of facts  Learning with expertise is a matter of chunking - packaging information for learning possession of previously built schema  Short term memory has a limited capacity  But the elements of short term memory can be: A fact Or an organized set of facts  Learning with expertise is a matter of chunking - packaging information for learning possession of previously built schema

Chunking: Novice & Expert i.e., n00b versus guy with mad skillz expert novice fact

How Experts Differ From Novices: Experts Have Considerable Content Knowledge That Is Organized In Ways That Reflect Deep Understanding of Content Area  We use short term memory for  Schema  This knowledge seems to have a hierarchical, highly organized structure that functions in retrieval  Learning and Encoding  We use short term memory for  Schema  This knowledge seems to have a hierarchical, highly organized structure that functions in retrieval  Learning and Encoding

Chunking & Background Knowledge  Then same with letters …back to 7 again  Train to remember digit strings  From 7 to over 70 within 30 days  Train to remember digit strings  From 7 to over 70 within 30 days  Break big strings into smaller number of elements (chunking)  Each chunked element was remembered with a trick: races (background knowledge) = 9.41 seconds for 100 yards 3591 = 3 minutes, 59.1 seconds for 1 mile  Break big strings into smaller number of elements (chunking)  Each chunked element was remembered with a trick: races (background knowledge) = 9.41 seconds for 100 yards 3591 = 3 minutes, 59.1 seconds for 1 mile

examples Non-meaningful chess patterns: Master = Class A …no schema Non-meaningful chess patterns: Master = Class A …no schema Meaningful chess patterns: Master > Class A Meaningful chess patterns: Master > Class A Remembering Chess Patterns: Master versus Class A (good but not a master) Remembering Chess Patterns: Master versus Class A (good but not a master)

examples : Remembering Chess Pieces: yr chess players remember chess pieces better than college students because of their background learning one doesn't have to be an expert to have expertise yr chess players remember chess pieces better than college students because of their background learning one doesn't have to be an expert to have expertise

Problem Solving in Physics Expert Explanations: Concepts, "Big Ideas"  Expert 2: conservation of energy  Expert 3: work-theory theorem…  Expert 4: these can be done from energy considerations. Either you should know the principle of conservation of energy… Expert Explanations: Concepts, "Big Ideas"  Expert 2: conservation of energy  Expert 3: work-theory theorem…  Expert 4: these can be done from energy considerations. Either you should know the principle of conservation of energy… Novice Explanations: Superficial Features  Novice 1: blocks on an inclined plane  Novice 2: inclined plane problems, friction  Novice 3: blocks on inclined planes w/ angles

Understanding and Transfer Teaching principles: Learning with understanding Teaching principles: Learning with understanding Teaching rote application of memorized formula Is the learning transferred to novel but analogous tasks? Learning with understanding group: YES Rote memorization group: "we haven't had that yet"

Problem Solving and Understanding  Word problem asked: "There are 26 sheep and 10 goats. How old is the captain?"  Word problem asked: "There are 26 sheep and 10 goats. How old is the captain?"  Results of learners: Experts: Recognized that the problem is not solvable Novices (children): not a coherent sense of core concept e.g., 36 "…well, you need to add or subtract or multiply in a problem like this, and this one seemed to work best if I add" (Bransford and Stein, 1993)  Results of learners: Experts: Recognized that the problem is not solvable Novices (children): not a coherent sense of core concept e.g., 36 "…well, you need to add or subtract or multiply in a problem like this, and this one seemed to work best if I add" (Bransford and Stein, 1993)

Reaching Students: Teaching Hamlet  Steve' Pedagogy: Connecting with student emotions, asking: How would you feel if your father died all of a sudden? …and then your mother immediately remarried? …and her new husband took over the family business? …and the new guy may have murdered your Dad? …and your Mom might have helped him to do it? How would your feel? How desperate would you be? What would you do? Would you be yourself? What circumstances might drive someone to murder?  Steve' Pedagogy: Connecting with student emotions, asking: How would you feel if your father died all of a sudden? …and then your mother immediately remarried? …and her new husband took over the family business? …and the new guy may have murdered your Dad? …and your Mom might have helped him to do it? How would your feel? How desperate would you be? What would you do? Would you be yourself? What circumstances might drive someone to murder?  Jake and Steve are both Shakespearean teacher/scholars  Jake's pedagogy: Passion for formal literary scholarship Linguistic flexivity Modernism In-depth analysis of soliloquies Memorization of long passages  Jake's pedagogy: Passion for formal literary scholarship Linguistic flexivity Modernism In-depth analysis of soliloquies Memorization of long passages

Transfer Test Transfer Test Possible Predictions (%) 5025 Group 3 Group 2 Group 1 Effectiveness of Preparation for Learning with Understanding Studied a Research Paper Studied a Research Paper Lecture Designed to Organize Knowledge & Learn with Understanding Lecture Designed to Organize Knowledge & Learn with Understanding Experimental Treatments from Schartz et al., 1999 Preface: Studied Data Sets Preface: Studied Data Sets

What is Learning? Memorizing Facts Is Necessary, But Inadequate Learn for Understanding Application to Solve New Problems Memorizing Facts Is Necessary, But Inadequate Learn for Understanding Application to Solve New Problems Students Need to Build Their Own Meaning Transfer

Teaching So That Students Learn with Understanding Learning is improved by being:  Learner-centered  Knowledge-centered  Assessment-centered  All situated within social context Learning is improved by being:  Learner-centered  Knowledge-centered  Assessment-centered  All situated within social context

Major Kinds of Assessment  Summative Assessment - measuring learning outcomes  Formative Assessment - a pedagogical steering wheel Communicate learning goals to students Provide timely feedback to students Collect diagnostic clues about student needs Build an incentive system for competency standards  Summative Assessment - measuring learning outcomes  Formative Assessment - a pedagogical steering wheel Communicate learning goals to students Provide timely feedback to students Collect diagnostic clues about student needs Build an incentive system for competency standards

Technology assessment tools…

Assessment Styles Open- ended assessm ent styles Structure d assessm ent styles Open- ended assessm ent styles Structure d assessm ent styles Utility of CompetingAssessmentStyles CompetingAssessmentStyles Learn Facts Learn Inquiry Learn Concepts main learning goal foundational information main learning goal foundational information

Open-ended Assessment A Contradiction?  Perhaps some structured formative assessment  Portfolio model …report authoring  Epsitemological scaffolding …e.g., 3 P's  Iterative, analogous scenarios  Path analysis …monitor decision making  Perhaps some structured formative assessment  Portfolio model …report authoring  Epsitemological scaffolding …e.g., 3 P's  Iterative, analogous scenarios  Path analysis …monitor decision making

Teaching So That Students Learn with Understanding Learning is improved by being:  Learner-centered  Knowledge-centered  Assessment-centered  All situated within social context Learning is improved by being:  Learner-centered  Knowledge-centered  Assessment-centered  All situated within social context

Learning is a social activity  Recent review of 400 teaching reform projects:  Mixture of teaching innovations: Active learning Active and cooperative learning  Cooperative learning invariably improved learning outcomes, even with powerful pedagogies  Recent review of 400 teaching reform projects:  Mixture of teaching innovations: Active learning Active and cooperative learning  Cooperative learning invariably improved learning outcomes, even with powerful pedagogies

Learning: Best with Social Interaction and Environmental Richness Combined  Treatment: activity of rat brains Environmental complexity (cages were complex and changed often) Social interactions (caged individually or in groups)  Measured: ratio of astrocytes per neuron (brain activity)  Results: Environmental richness inevitably increased brain activity, whether alone or interacting socially Greatest effects when environmental richness and social interactions are combined  Treatment: activity of rat brains Environmental complexity (cages were complex and changed often) Social interactions (caged individually or in groups)  Measured: ratio of astrocytes per neuron (brain activity)  Results: Environmental richness inevitably increased brain activity, whether alone or interacting socially Greatest effects when environmental richness and social interactions are combined

Why do social interactions matter?  One possible reason…  When we articulate our thoughts …make words  We turn on a part of the brain involved with: Communication Synthesis Long term memory formation  One possible reason…  When we articulate our thoughts …make words  We turn on a part of the brain involved with: Communication Synthesis Long term memory formation

Teaching

Teaching Expertise  Good teaching requires more than a set of general teaching principles  Teaching requires well organized knowledge: Concepts Inquiry methods  Teaching requires well organized knowledge: Concepts Inquiry methods  This knowledge is discipline specific  But is content knowledge is not enough

Content Knowledge Is Not Enough Content Knowledge

Pedagogical Knowledge Content Knowledge Is Not Enough

Pedagogical Content Knowledge Content Knowledge Is Not Enough

Expert Teachers  Know the structure of their disciplines Foundational information Important concepts Methods of inquiry  Possess cognitive roadmaps that guide the assignments that they give students  Employ formative assessments to communicate goals and to gauge student progress  Have examples & narratives that bring the content to life for the student  Know the structure of their disciplines Foundational information Important concepts Methods of inquiry  Possess cognitive roadmaps that guide the assignments that they give students  Employ formative assessments to communicate goals and to gauge student progress  Have examples & narratives that bring the content to life for the student

Barbara Johnson is a master teacher  Starts course by asking students What questions do you have about yourself? What questions do you have about the world?  She lists the answers and organizes students into groups  Each group discusses the questions to prioritize and seek themes  Starts course by asking students What questions do you have about yourself? What questions do you have about the world?  She lists the answers and organizes students into groups  Each group discusses the questions to prioritize and seek themes

Learning with Understanding…  They all create an agenda of investigations together  At a late stage in the investigations, they reviewed where they were in the context of the curriculum  Students are surprised to discover that their interests were intermeshed with formal disciplines and that so many disciplines had been engaged  Students have engaged emotions reconstructed previous knowledge constructed new knowledge from previous foundations developed their critical inquiry skills assumed the authority of knowledge making built a community of learners and team mates  They all create an agenda of investigations together  At a late stage in the investigations, they reviewed where they were in the context of the curriculum  Students are surprised to discover that their interests were intermeshed with formal disciplines and that so many disciplines had been engaged  Students have engaged emotions reconstructed previous knowledge constructed new knowledge from previous foundations developed their critical inquiry skills assumed the authority of knowledge making built a community of learners and team mates

What makes Barbara successful? She has pedagogical-content knowledge  She could map content and curricular agendas onto student identified interests and projects and communicate to the students the scholarly nature of their activity  A general strategy for holding this kind of class would not work without content knowledge  Knowing the content alone would not prepare a teacher to support a learner-centered experience like this  She could map content and curricular agendas onto student identified interests and projects and communicate to the students the scholarly nature of their activity  A general strategy for holding this kind of class would not work without content knowledge  Knowing the content alone would not prepare a teacher to support a learner-centered experience like this

Summary

Key Findings about Learning  Learning is constructive and reconstructive we must confront and build on the experiences and beliefs that students bring  Students need knowledge to learn with understanding - our goal is making meaning  To become life-long learners, students must develop metacognitive skills that are reflective and help them to gauge their progress toward making meaning  Learning is constructive and reconstructive we must confront and build on the experiences and beliefs that students bring  Students need knowledge to learn with understanding - our goal is making meaning  To become life-long learners, students must develop metacognitive skills that are reflective and help them to gauge their progress toward making meaning

Elements of Learning Environments Formative Assessment Formative Assessment Knowledge Centered Approaches Knowledge Centered Approaches Learning Centered Approaches Learning Centered Approaches Learning Situated In Social Context Learning Situated In Social Context Bransford, Brown and Cocking, 2000.

Learning, Understanding, and Transfer Memorizing Facts Is Necessary, But Inadequate Learn for Understanding Application to Solve New Problems Memorizing Facts Is Necessary, But Inadequate Learn for Understanding Application to Solve New Problems Students Need to Build Their Own Meaning Transfer

Learning with Understanding The Third International Mathematics and Science Survey (TIMSS; Schmidt, 1997) "criticized curricula that are a mile wide and an inch deep" and argued that this is more of a problem in the U.S. than in other countries. "The fact that expert's knowledge is organized around important ideas or concepts suggests that curricula should also be organized in ways that lead to conceptual understanding" The Third International Mathematics and Science Survey (TIMSS; Schmidt, 1997) "criticized curricula that are a mile wide and an inch deep" and argued that this is more of a problem in the U.S. than in other countries. "The fact that expert's knowledge is organized around important ideas or concepts suggests that curricula should also be organized in ways that lead to conceptual understanding" NRC, 2000

Teaching Reform First Principles Learning with Understanding Balancing Learning and Coverage Formative Assessment Learning with Understanding Balancing Learning and Coverage Formative Assessment

How People Learn Donald P. Buckley, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Biology Director of Instructional Technology, School of Health Sciences Quinnipiac University Apple Distinguished Educator Computerworld Smithsonian Laureate Donald P. Buckley, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Biology Director of Instructional Technology, School of Health Sciences Quinnipiac University Apple Distinguished Educator Computerworld Smithsonian Laureate