Medieval Drama and Lay Piety Place of medieval drama in history of European drama –no connection to Classical drama not entertainment not money-making –begins as liturgy or ritual Amalarius, bishop of Metz (before 850) begins dramatizing liturgical moments, i.e.. Elevation of the host –supports religious values and practices earliest dramatized liturgy reenacts the Passion and the Resurrection—the Easter story

The medieval audience: Why did they find these dramas so powerful? Nonliterary representation of the news of salvation for mostly illiterate folks Use humor and pathos as lures to invite audience into religion Complex theological and philosophical issues presented as narratives Took advantage of medievals’ sense of time as more circular than linear to present all of Biblical history, especially salvation history as contemporary

How are these dramas attuned to the medievals’ piety? Forgiveness and salvation are continually available to the penitent. –Social standing no obstacle to salvation. –Previous wrongdoing no obstacle to salvation. Jesus is always present, even in Old Testament moments. –All of Biblical history seen as leading to the present Christian era, which allows salvation to all. –Jesus returns again and again, as in the Eucharist.

Cyclical & Linear Time in the Modern Age Moderns tend to emphasize linear time over cyclical time –we celebrate birthdays, reunions, anniversaries, New Year’s –age-based groupings are very important to us: tots, teens, etc. –heating, AC, and travel enable us to escape the worst of seasons. –we think of history as teleological –living in the present is not our strength; instead we imagine the future and obsess about the past.

Cyclical & Linear Time in Medieval Age Medievals tend to emphasize cyclical time over linear time –almost everyone involved in agriculture –documents dated by Church calendar and king’s reign, for example “on Michaelmas in the third year of the reign of...” –celebrations of Church feast days, not of personal milestones –see themselves as living “in the Christian era,” the time between the Incarnation and the Second Coming, when salvation is possible

Medieval values reinforce cyclical idea of time and medieval piety Church calendar encourages annual rehearsals of Biblical events of Christ’s life. Theology of repentance gives believers the idea that they can be cleansed and begin again. Medievals saw human history divided into three eras –before Christ’s incarnation--too early for salvation –present time of Salvation –after the Second Coming--too late to repent and be Saved Time distinctions between eras outweigh those within eras.

How were medieval dramas structured to enhance lay piety? Corpus Christi, cycle or mystery plays –performed by lay guilds –merging of “biblical present” with “medieval present” made the Bible contemporary for medievals –see all of salvation history (Incarnation to Last Judgment) as essentially co-terminal with present –see selected moments of OT history as cyclical precursors to the Crucifixion, and thus as OT moments which also allow the possibility of salvation

What NOT to learn from medieval drama? that these dramas were quaint, primitive, unsophisticated, and unplanned. that medievals misunderstood the Old Testament –as being Trinitarian –as occurring after the Incarnation that the medievals saw Biblical events as having taken place in their neighborhoods, in their local dialects, and to persons wearing their clothing. that medievals misunderstood time

What to learn from medieval drama? that medievals saw the OT/NT relationship in complex ways –because Jesus’ coming is always known to God, His coming is continually an undercurrent in the OT. –because Jesus harrowed Hell, NT-style salvation is selectively available even to OT figures. That medievals saw the power of certain moments of Biblical history as always available to them in the present moment, especially the power of Easter and of Christmas.

What to learn from medieval drama? As Christ, because of the dramatized, ritualized actions of the Eucharist, becomes present in the mass, moments of Christ’s life can become present for the medieval audience of these dramas. –At the Crucifixion, for example, the audience can both relive Jesus’ passion, and can become complicit as crucifiers. –At the nativity, for example, the audience can relive the joy of the shepherds who were its first witnesses

“Evil” vs. “good” Evil characters always more dramatically portrayed than good characters. Medieval audience encouraged to identify with and sympathize with evil characters, from whom they can learn of their own need for forgiveness. –Mak and Gill become the characters with whom the medieval audience is to identify. As Mak and Gill need forgiveness for sheep-stealing, the audience needs forgiveness for imperfectly understanding the Incarnation Catholic doctrine encouraged people to discover their sins through self examination, confess them, and learn from them.

Cycle plays suppressed by Protestant Reformation Catholic plays reinforced possibility of “real presence” of Christ arising from ritual reenactments of Christ’s actions emphasis on infinite human sin overcome by unimaginably infinite divine forgiveness sin as precursor to salvation Protestant see the ritual reenactments of Christ’s actions as no longer having the power to invoke “real presence” emphasis on limits to divine forgiveness in doctrine of “elect” sin as precursor to damnation