Foreign Language Reading through Hypermedia: Predictors of Vocabulary Learning and Reading Comprehension Yavuz Akbulut Anadolu University, Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technologies Eskişehir, Turkey

2 Hypermedia Computer-based applications that provide information in a nonlinear way through multiple types of resources such as text, graphics, sound, video, and animation (Kommers et al., 1996). Computer-based applications that provide information in a nonlinear way through multiple types of resources such as text, graphics, sound, video, and animation (Kommers et al., 1996). Notable numbers of software developed for language teaching, since hypermedia: present input in multiple forms provide more interaction use authentic material more efficiently

3 Reading Glosses / Annotations A glossary is defined as a list of words and phrases, and their meanings, which are judged to be outside the learner's current competence (Widdowson, 1984). Glossaries: help learners to cope with text comprehension sustain authenticity better than text simplification increase; - flow of reading - independence from dictionaries - accuracy in finding meaning

4 Vocabulary Learning Vocabulary learning outcomes vary according to; linguistic proficiency individual learning styles annotation type

5 Reading Comprehension Hypermedia facilitates reading comprehension Reading comprehension outcomes vary according to: Foreign language reading proficiency Prior knowledge on the subject domain Topic interest Learning styles

6 Research Questions What are the predictors of vocabulary learning in a hypermedia environment for advanced language learners? What are the predictors of reading comprehension in hypermedia environments for advanced language learners?

7 Methods & Procedures Dependent Variables Vocabulary scores Vocabulary scores Reading comprehension scores Reading comprehension scores Participants 69 freshman students studying at a TEFL department in a Turkish university, 47 female and 22 males. 69 freshman students studying at a TEFL department in a Turkish university, 47 female and 22 males. They were randomly assigned to three pools and those three pools were randomly assigned to levels of the treatment. They were randomly assigned to three pools and those three pools were randomly assigned to levels of the treatment. Independent Variables Annotation type with three levels (i.e., definition, definition plus picture and definition plus video), reading ability, cognitive and perceptual learning styles, prior topical knowledge, topic interest. Annotation type with three levels (i.e., definition, definition plus picture and definition plus video), reading ability, cognitive and perceptual learning styles, prior topical knowledge, topic interest.

8 Treatment: Hypermedia Reading Software An authentic reading text was selected via a topic interest questionnaire. The text consisted of 1330 words An authentic reading text was selected via a topic interest questionnaire. The text consisted of 1330 words 42 words underlined as unknown by the pilot group were chosen as annotations. 42 words underlined as unknown by the pilot group were chosen as annotations. Three forms of the very same text were prepared using a reading software designed by Ariew (1999). Each form has the same layout and had 9 pages with a linear organization: Three forms of the very same text were prepared using a reading software designed by Ariew (1999). Each form has the same layout and had 9 pages with a linear organization: Form 1: Form 1: Definition only Form 1: Form 2: Form 2: Definition and associated picture Form 2: Form 3: Form 3: Definition and associated video Form 3: A tracking tool built in the software was used to save every single interaction of the readers with the reading material. A tracking tool built in the software was used to save every single interaction of the readers with the reading material.

9 Instruments (1/3) Instruments (1/3) Vocabulary Test - Similar tests were used before (Knight, 1994; Rott, 1999; Waring & Takaki, 2003) - Consisted of three parts: Form recognition, meaning recognition and meaning production. - Two pilot studies were conducted to sustain ideal item facility, item discrimination and distractor efficiency indexes, to detect unknown distractors and to determine ideal timing. - Cronbach’s alpha=.76 in pre-test,.72 in post-test,.69 in delayed test - Interrater R=.94 in pre-test,.98 in post-test,.98 in delayed test

10 Instruments (2/3) Reading Comprehension Test - Test rubrics were prepared according to Alderson (2000), Bachman and Palmer (1996) and Urquhart and Weir (1998) - 12 multiple choice, 22 true-false questions - Proofread by an American colleague for unidiomatic language - Cronbach’s alpha:.79 (multiple-choice),.70 (true- false)

11 Instruments (3/3) Nelson & Denny Reading Test (Brown et al.,1993) Prior Knowledge Test - Consisted of a recall part and open-ended questions - Interrater reliability coefficients were.97 on the recall part and.96 on open-ended questions Learning Style Questionnaire (Oxford, 1993) Topic interest questionnaire (Schiefele & Krapp, 1996)

12 Procedures Prior knowledge, topic interest and vocabulary pre-test - 2 weeks before the treatment Nelson & Denny Reading Test - 11 days before the treatment Treatment - given in a computer lab designed for simultaneous processing of 25 computers each connected to a local area network (LAN). - 3 sessions were arranged for 69 students, 23 in each. - Through a data projector, researchers oriented students with the material before each section. Vocabulary Post-test and Reading Comprehension Test - Immediately after the treatment Vocabulary Delayed Post-test - 3 weeks after the treatment

13 Data Analysis Gained vocabulary scores were calculated All variables were put into a bivariate correlation calculation in SPSS. Variables that had high correlations with the outcome variables were put into a hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Variables that had high correlations with each other were eliminated from the analysis and final regression analyses were conducted. Assumptions of observation independence, linearity, multicollinearity, non-zero variance, normally distributed errors and uncorrelated residual term were sustained.

14 Results (1/3) * p <.05, ** p<.01 Immediate Post-test Scores Predictors: Predictors: - Language proficiency (r=.323, p<.007) - Prior topical knowledge (r=.355, p<.003) - Annotation type (dummy variable) Predictor Explained Variance (R square) F Change Sig.Beta Language Proficiency ** Prior knowledge * Annotation type *

15 Results (2/3) * p <.05, ** p<.01 Delayed Post-test Scores Predictors: Predictors: - Language proficiency (r=.319, p<.008) - Annotation type (dummy variable) Predictor Explained Variance (R square) F Change Sig.Beta Language Proficiency ** Annotation type *

16 Results (3/3) * p <.05, ** p<.01 Reading Comprehension Predictors: Predictors: - Reading ability (r=.386, p<.001) - SAS visual score (r=.248, p<.04) Predictor Explained Variance (R square) F Change Sig.Beta Language Proficiency ** Visual score *

17 Discussion -It is better to present an explanation in words and visuals than solely in words (Generative Theory, dual channels assumption) - Linguistic proficiency (Knight, 1994) and annotation type (Seghayer, 2001) are important variables contributing to vocabulary learning. - Reading ability is the basic predictor of text comprehension (Devine, 1988) - There is a relationship between individual learning styles and learning outcomes (Andris, 1996; Plass et al & 2003) - Manipulating the instructional design has a beneficial outcome for easy materials as opposed to Sweller (1994) and Sweller et al.(1998)

18 Pedagogical Implications Interaction between the reader and the text provides individualized learning. Learners can have control over their learning process and learn at their own pace. Learners with different learning styles can make use of hypermedia environments Presentation of authentic input is made easier with hypermedia software. Familiarizing L2 learners with hypermedia experience and training them can be quite feasible. Professionals involved in material development should consider the importance of visual aids in language teaching through hypermedia.

19 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Research The target population of the study was EFL students who learn English for academic purposes. This study should be replicated in other learning contexts. Further studies with larger sample sizes must be conducted to investigate whether a really significant variation existed in the population. The use of a pre-test affected the generalizability of this study: the results cannot be generalized to people who are not pre-tested. Participants were exposed to a non-traditional treatment, but tested with traditional testing methods in the current study. Employing on-screen tests where visual elements are incorporated would be more suitable for use in hypermedia environments.

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