Specifying a Purpose, Research Questions or Hypothesis Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright © 2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Key Ideas The difference between purpose statements, hypotheses, and research questions Variables in quantitative research Qualitative research considerations Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Purpose Statements, Research Questions, Research Hypotheses, Research Objectives Purpose statements: a declarative statement that advances the overall direction or focus for the study. Research Questions: Interrogative statements that narrow the purpose statement to specific questions that researchers seek to answer in their study. Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Purpose Statements, Research Questions, Research Hypotheses, Research Objectives Research Hypotheses: Declarative statements in quantitative research in which the investigator makes a prediction or conjecture about the outcomes relationship. Research Objective: A statement of intent for the study that specifies specific goals that the investigator plans to achieve in a study. Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Distinguishing among various forms of direction in research Purpose Statement Research Questions Hypothesis Research Objectives Overall Direction Intent Raise questions to be answered Make predictions about expectations State Goals Form One or more sentences One or More Objectives One or more questions One or more questions Use Quantitative and Qualitative Research Quantitative and Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Typically Quantitative Research End of the introduction, after the literature review, or in a separate section of the study End of Introduction Placement Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Stating Hypotheses Quantitative hypotheses A researcher’s tentative prediction of the results of the research Formulated on the basis of knowledge of the underlying theory or implications from the literature review Testing hypotheses leads to support or lack thereof Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Stating Hypotheses A good hypothesis… is based on sound reasoning. provides a reasonable explanation for the predicted outcome. clearly and concisely states the expected relationships between variables. is testable. Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Stating Hypotheses Types of hypotheses Inductive – a generalization made from a number of observations Deductive – derived from theory and aimed at providing evidence to support, expand, or contradict aspects of that theory Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Stating Hypotheses Types of hypotheses (continued) Research hypotheses state the expected relationship between two variables Non-directional – a statement that a relationship or difference exists between the variables Directional – a statement of the expected direction of the relationship or difference between variables Null – a statement that no statistically significant relationship of difference exists between variable Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Stating Hypotheses Qualitative hypotheses Given the nature of qualitative research, formal a-priori hypotheses are not stated Generating role of qualitative research Testing role of quantitative research Focus is on generating new hypotheses as a result of the study (i.e., inductive hypotheses) Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Stating Hypotheses Formats for experimental studies Testing hypotheses P who get X do better on Y that P who do not get X P represents the participant X represents the treatment Y represents the outcome Testing hypotheses Statistical analysis of data Importance of the results regardless of the outcome Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Definition of a Variable (A Characteristic or Attribute) Can be and Measured Varies (Can be assessed on an instrument and recorded on an instrument) (Can assume different values or scores for different individuals) Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Variables and Constructs A Variable is an attribute or characteristic stated in a specific or applied way A Construct is an attribute or characteristic expressed in an abstract, general way. Construct Student Achievement Variable Grade Point Average Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Categorical and Continuous Scores A categorical score is a value of a variable assigned by the researcher into a small number of categories. (e.g. Gender) A continuous variable is the value of a variable assigned by the researcher to a point along a continuum of scores, from low to high. (e.g. Age) Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Families of Variables Independent Variable: An attribute or characteristic that influences or effects an outcome of the independent variable. Treatment Variable Measured Variable Control Variables Moderating Variables Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Families of Variables Intervening Variables (Mediating Variables): An attribute or characteristic that “stands between” the dependent and independent variables. Dependent Variables: An attribute or characteristic influenced by the independent variable. Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Families of Variables Confounding Variables (Spurious Variables): Attributes or characteristics that the researcher cannot directly measure because their effects cannot be easily separated from the other variables, even though they may influence the relationship between the independent and the independent variable. Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

The Family of Variables in Quantitative Studies Probable Cause Effect Independent Variables Treatment Measured Intervening Variables Dependent Variables Control Variables Confounding Variables Moderating Variables Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Intervening Variables “Stand Between” Independent and Dependent Variables Step 1 Dependent Variable Example Convenient office hours for students Student seeks help from faculty Independent Variable Intervening Variable Independent Variable Step 2 Convenient office hours for students Student becomes willing to take risks Example Independent Variable Intervening Variable Step 3 Dependent Variable Convenient office hours for students Student becomes willing to take risks Student seeks help from faculty Example Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Theories as Bridges Between Independent and Dependent Variables Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Different Types of Explanations in Quantitative Research Extensive Tests by other researchers Broad Abstractions As a formal theory that is expressed by connected hypotheses and variables identified by authors As a conceptual framework often expressed as a visual model by other authors for relationship As a theoretical rationale posed by other authors based on studies for relationship As explanation posed by the author as a hunch for why the independent variable relates to the dependent variable No Test Narrow Application Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Whether Variables Prove Probable Cause Probable causation: The researchers attempt to establish a likely cause/effect relationship between variables rather than prove the relationship. Control is vital: Control means that the researcher attempts to study all factors that might help explain the relationship between an independent and dependent variable. Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Four Types of Probable Causality X = independent variable Y = dependent variable 1. Time: Close in time, not distant X-Y, not X Y 2. Space: Close in distance, not distant X-Y, not X Y 3. Variation: One goes up, the other down X Y, not X Y 3. Multiple Causes: Multiple independent variables influence the dependent variable X Y Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Quantitative - more closed Differences between quantitative and qualitative purpose statements and research questions Quantitative - more closed 1. Probable cause/Effect (“Why did it happen?”) 2. Use of theories (Why did it happen in view of an explanation or theory?” 3. Assessing differences and magnitude “How much happened?” “How many times did it happen? What were the differences among groups in what happened? Qualitative - more open-ended 1. Descriptive (“What happened?”) 2. Interpretive (“What was the meaning to people of what happened?”) 3. Process-oriented (“What happened over time?”) Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Quantitative Qualitative How researchers explain or predict variables versus exploring or understanding a Central Phenomenon Quantitative Explaining or Predicting Variables Qualitative Understanding or exploring a Central Phenomenon X Y Y The independent variable (X) influences a dependent variable (Y) In-depth understanding of Y; external forces shape and are shaped by Y Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.

Qualitative Research Considerations More open-ended The direction of the study is focused on how to best learn from the participants The focus of the research is around a Central Phenomenon which is an issue or a process the researcher would like to study. Qualitative research is built on an emerging design Educational Research by John W. Creswell. Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education. All rights reserved.