Grammatical Hierarchy Introduction Grammatical Hierarchy

Definition of GRAMMAR GRAMMAR: the structural system of a language. the branch of linguistics that deals with syntax and morphology (and sometimes also deals with semantics) Linguistics Syntax Morphology Grammar Semantics

Five Ranks the Sentence the Clause the Phrase the Word the Morpheme The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks: the Sentence the Clause the Phrase the Word the Morpheme

Diagram of the five ranks: Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank: Sentence lowest Clause Phrase Word highest Morpheme

Example Sentence Clause Phrases Words Morphemes A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents---the morphemes. Sentence Clause These undergraduates are rapidly improving in their writing. Phrases Noun Phrase Verb Phrase Prepositional Phrase are rapidly improving are in their writing in These undergraduates These Words rapid ly their under graduat es improv ing writ ing Morphemes

0.1 Morphemes 1.Definition: the minimum or smallest grammatical unit the smallest meaningful element of speech. 2.Classification: Two categories: 1) Free Morphemes 2) Bound Morphemes. *3) Allomorphs 3. Diagram of Morpheme

1) Free Morphemes 1. Definition: has a complete meaning can stand by itself as a Simple Word can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech to form Compound Words Derivatives

Affix 2) Bound Morphemes are mostly affixes also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other forms cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an Affix Inflectional or Derivational

Inflectional Affix -’s (genitive case) -s/-es (plural nouns) -s/-es (the third person singular verbs in simple present) -ed (past tense verbs) -ing, -ed (-ing participle, -ed participle form of verbs) -er, -est (comparative, superlative degree of adjectives/ adverbs)

Derivational Affix Prefix, Suffix (Prefix) + Root + (suffix) co-exist existence co-existence

-’s, -s -ing, -ed/-en -est, -er, -s,-es Diagram of Morpheme Free M ＋ Affix Derivative Free morpheme Free M ＋ Free M Compound word Morpheme Word-formation -’s, -s -ing, -ed/-en -est, -er, -s,-es Inflectional Affix Bound morpheme Affix Prefix Derivational Affix ＋ Root Suffix

3) Allomorphs Definition: The variants of the same morpheme are called allomorphs. Explanation: the same morpheme in different contexts may take different phonological or orthographical forms.

Examples: /s/ /z/ /iz/ In Orthography: in- im- il- ir- inactive immature illegal irrational incoherent immortal illogical irregular inexperienced imperfect illegible irrelevant In phonology: -s cats dogs houses /s/ /z/ /iz/

0.2 Words is composed of one or more morpheme. can be classified in two ways: in terms of word-formation grammatical function

In terms of Word-formation a) Simple Word b) Derivative c) Compound Word

a) Simple Word: also called Morpheme Word (free morpheme) minor but has frequent appearance and strong derivational ability the main body of English vocabulary usually the small word at on down near hand foot take make

b) Derivative: Structure: (prefix) + root +(suffix) : un kind ness Influence the meaning of the root Influence the part of speech of the root

c) Compound Word Structure: Free Morpheme + Free Morpheme Classification: Compound Noun Compound Adjective Compound Verb Compound Adverb Compound Pronoun Compound Conjunction Compound Preposition

In terms of grammatical function Closed-class words Open-class words

Closed-class words Definition: Closed-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are closed or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members.

Scope: All the Function Words: Preposition Pronoun Determiner Conjunction Auxiliary

Open-class Words Definition: Open-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly being created and old items are giving place to new ones.

Scope: All the Content Words: NOTE: Noun Adjective Adverb Main Verb NOTE: Cardinal Numeral, Ordinal Numeral and Interjection are between closed and open

0.3 Phrases Definition: is composed of one or more than one word. is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key Word as its Head. The word class of the Head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.

Word Class of Phrase : Noun Phrase Verb Phrase Adjective Phrase Adverb Phrase Prepositional Phrase

Noun as the Pre-Modifier 1) The Noun Phrase: Structure: (Determiner) + (Pre-Modifier) + Noun + (Post-Modifier) all the college students Noun as the Head Determiner Noun as the Pre-Modifier

Non-finite Verb Phrase Exercise Prepositional Phrase Non-finite Verb Phrase His new book on phonology Milton lived in the 17th century The author’s new novel that will soon come out book Milton novel Clause

In terms of the amount of verbs 2) The Verb Phrase: Classification : In terms of the amount of verbs Simple Verb Phrase Complex Verb Phrase In terms of grammatical form Finite Verb Phrase Non-finite Verb Phrase

Simple Verb Phrase: Structure: (Modifier) + Main Verb + (Modifier) She looks pale. We utterly detested him. Main Verb Modifier + Main Verb

Complex Verb Phrase: Structure: It is getting dark. Auxiliary /Auxiliaries + Main Verb + (Modifier) It is getting dark. She ought to have told him about it. Joan will certainly object and so will Mary.

Finite Verb Phrase: A finite verb phrase is initiated by a finite form, that is, a verb form that changes according to Tense or Subject. Verb phrases I loved you two years ago. Tommy loves Lora. Person/ Number Tense Children love fairy tales.

Non-finite Verb Phrase: A non-finite verb phrase is initiated by a non-finite form, that is, a verb form that does not change according to Tense or Subject. We went there to see a film. Robert seldom goes there to see a film. Andrew will go there to see a film. I usually go there to see a film. Finite Non-finite

Point out finite and non- finite verb phrases: Having seen the film, we had a discussion. Painted by a famous artist, the portrait is invaluable. Tired from studying all afternoon, she went for a walk. Opening the book slowly and tentatively, she began to read. Finite Non-finite

3) The Adjective Phrase: Structure: (Modifier) + Adjective + (Post modifier / Complementation) The course is pretty difficult. I’ll be glad to help you repair the car if you show me what’s wrong. pretty difficult glad to help you repair the car

4) The Adverb Phrase: Structure: (Modifier) + Adverb + (post Modifier) He spoke loudly and clearly.

5) The Prepositional Phrase: Structure: (Modifier) + Preposition + Complementation The weather has been fine except in the north. Now their footsteps could be heard directly above my head. We are collecting money for the benefit of some orphans. except in the north above my head for the benefit of some orphans

0.4 Clauses: is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrase and logically a construction of “Subject + Predicate”.

Classification: In terms of grammatical function: In terms of the “Subject + Predicate” construction: In terms of the relation between the clauses In terms of verb phrase type Verbless clauses

1) In terms of grammatical function: Independent clause (IC) Dependent clause (DC) stand by itself act as a complete utterance forms only part of another clause or phrase He knows everything about it. I don’t think he knows everything about it.

Quiz: I went to the store. I didn't buy any bread. I went to the store, but I didn't buy any bread. I went to the store; however, I didn't buy any bread. When I went to the store, I didn't buy any bread. I didn't buy any bread when I went to the store. IC. IC. IC; IC. IC, IC. IC; IC. DC, IC. IC DC.

2) In terms of the “Subject + Predicate” construction: Simple Clause Complex Clause only one construction of “subject + predicate” comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements

Examples: simple or complex? It is not true. What you said is not true. He said that it was not true. He complained that what you said was not true. IC Simple Simple IC Complex Complex DC IC Simple Complex DC IC Complex Complex DC

3) In terms of the relation between the clauses In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause.

Example: Main Clause Subordinate Clause He complained that what you said was not true. Subordinate Clause Main Clause

4) In terms of verb phrase type: Finite Clause: Non-finite Clause: takes a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb takes a non-finite verb phrase as its predicator I signed the paper to get the license. (Non-finite clause) It is forbidden to smoke in this room. (Non-finite clause)

Quiz: Finite or Nonfinite? 1. Everybody left just after the ceremony 2. Inviting your sister was not a great decision 3. I'll be home around ten if my train is on time. 4. They expect Susan to do all the work. 5. Deprived of oxygen, plants will quickly die Finite Nonfinite Finite Finite Nonfinite

5) Verbless clauses is marked by the absence of any form of verb element is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element. Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned. Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with excitement.

0.5 Sentences Features  Definition  Classification 

A. Features: the highest rank of grammatical unit. the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse Based on one or more than one clause can stand alone and perform a function in social communication.

B. Definition a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.

C. Classification Full and Minor Sentences A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function. Minor sentences are extensively used in informal discourses. A: When did he arrive? B: Last night. No smoking! Fire!

Full Sentence A Full Sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing. Classification

Classification of Full Sentence: Simple Sentence Compound Sentence Complex Sentence Compound-complex Sentence one independent clause Two or more coordinated independent clauses an independent clause comprising one or more dependent clauses as its elements Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause

Examples: Some students like to study in the mornings. Jack and James play football every afternoon. S. S. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day. S. S. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English. Cpd. S. We had to go inside when it started raining. Cpx. S. As long as it isn't cold , it doesn't matter if it rains. Cpx. S. I admire Tim, but he doesn't admire me, although I try hard to impress him. Cpd. Cpx. S.

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