Chapter 2 Solar Energy, Seasons, and the Atmosphere Elemental Geosystems 5e Robert W. Christopherson Charles E. Thomsen

Solar Energy, Seasons, and the Atmosphere The Solar System, Sun, and Earth   Solar Energy: From Sun to Earth   The Seasons  Atmospheric Composition, Temperature and Function Variable Atmospheric Components

The Solar System, Sun, and Earth Dimensions and Distances, and Earth’s orbit

Milky Way Galaxy Figure 2.1

Our Solar System Figure 2.1

Solar Energy: From Sun to Earth Solar wind   Electromagnetic Spectrum of Radiant Energy Incoming Energy at the Top of the Atmosphere  Solar constant Uneven distribution of insolation Global net radiation

Solar Activity and Solar Wind Solar wind is clouds of electrically charged particles Sunspots are caused by magnetic storms Sunspots have activity cycle of 11 years Figure 2.2

Aurora Borealis Figure 2.4

Wavelength and Frequency Figure 2.5

The Electromagnetic Spectrum Figure 2.6

Solar and Terrestrial Energy Figure 2.7

Earth’s Energy Budget Figure 2.8

Figure 2.9

Daily Net Radiation Figure 2.10

The Seasons Seasonality Reasons for Seasons Revolution Rotation Tilt of Earth’s axis Axial parallelism Annual March of the Seasons   Seasonal observations

Revolution and Rotation Figure 2.11

Earth’s Axial Tilt Figure 2.12

Annual March of the Seasons Figure 2.13

Earth–Sun Relationships

Characteristics of the Solstices and Equinoxes

Midnight Sun Figure 2.14

Seasonal Observations Figure 2.15

Atmospheric Composition, Temperature, and Function Atmospheric Profile   Atmospheric Composition Criterion   Atmospheric Temperature Criterion   Atmospheric Function Criterion  

Atmospheric Pressure Figure 2.18

Atmospheric Pressure Variation with Altitude

Profile of Atmosphere Figure 2.17

Temperature Profile Figure 2.20

Protective Atmosphere Figure 2.21

Atmospheric Function Ionosphere Ozonosphere Absorbs cosmic rays, gamma rays, X-rays, some UV rays Ozonosphere Part of stratosphere Ozone (O3) absorbs UV energy and converts it to heat energy

Atmospheric Composition Heterosphere – Outer Atmosphere 80 km (50 mi) outwards, to thermosphere Layers of gases sorted by gravity Homosphere – Inner Atmosphere Surface to 80 km (50 mi) Gases evenly blended

Composition of the Homosphere Figure 2.19

Importance of Ozone Ozone filters out most of the UV radiation from the Sun Decreased concentration allows more of these harmful wavelengths to reach Earth’s surface Increase risks of skin cancer Impair the human immune system Promote cataracts, clouding of the eye lens that reduces vision. May cause blindness if not treated Montreal Protocol was developed under the sponsorship of the UN to eliminate the production and use of CFCs

Antarctic Ozone Hole Figure FS 2.1.1

ClO and O3 Figure FS 2.1.2

Carbon Dioxide

Variable Atmospheric Components Natural Sources   Natural Factors That Affect Air Pollution   Anthropogenic Pollution   Benefits of the Clean Air Act

Natural Factors That Affect Air Pollution Winds Local and Regional Landscapes Temperature Inversion

Wildfires Figure 2.22

Temperature Inversion Figure 2.24

Anthropogenic Pollution Photochemical Smog Pollution Industrial Smog and Sulfur Oxides Particulates

Air Pollution Figure 2.25

Photochemical Smog Figure 2.26

Benefits of the Clean Air Act Total direct cost $523 billion Direct monetized benefits $5.6 to $49.4 trillion – average $22.2 trillion Net financial benefit $21.7 trillion 206,000 fewer deaths in 1990!

Elemental Geosystems 5e End of Chapter 2 Elemental Geosystems 5e Robert W. Christopherson Charles E. Thomsen