Summer 2001Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning1 Mapping for Learning: Mapping “ A given set of data only acquires significance when we map it onto a pattern of some kind.” (March and Steadman, p.29)

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning2 Brain Waves n In 1930s, Berger, a German psychiatrist discovered electrical brain waves n Any stimulus produces electrical responses in the brain called evoked potentials (recorded; averaged to remove noise) n When the stimulus is cognitive or intellectual task, the recording is a cognitive evoked potential

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning3 Analyzing Brain Activity n Brain mapping using X-rays makes it possible to see brain structure (CT scan) n Brain mapping using radioactive chemicals (PET scan)made it possible to study brain function over time (in intervals of thousandths of a second) n Millions of pieces of information can be stored on computers to be analyzed

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning4 Cognitive Process of Mapping (1) n “ A given set of data only acquires significance when we map it onto a pattern of some kind.” (March and Steadman, p.29) n Cognitive (process of) mapping = those abilities which enable us to collect, organize, store and recall, and operate on information about our environment

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning5 Cognitive Process of Mapping (2) n Mental map is a product of the cognitive process of mapping - cross sections of the world at one instant in time n Key concepts employed in studying cognitive mapping: representation and environment

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning6 Why is cognitive mapping important? (1) n Draw and describe in one sentence THIS picture.

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning7 Why is cognitive mapping important? (2) n Are cognitive maps accurate? n Is there a 1-1 correspondence between ones representations and the actual spatial environment? n Are mental maps similar? Given two individuals, how similar might their maps be of the same environment? n Is learning going to induce dissimilarities?

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning8 How Useful Are Mental Maps in Everyday Life? n Examples? n... n An understanding of how individuals cognitively map an environment can be used to provide a “common” map which can convey the maximum information to the greatest number of individuals

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning9 Research on the Cognitive Process of Mapping n Think about this moment in which I am trying to convey some (new?) concepts to you n What guides this mapping process? n…n…

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning10 Mapping: Problem Solving Sanford’s (1985) 1 A mapping between a problem-statement and relevant schemata in LTM 2 Problem solving begins with the manipulation of this mapping in WM 3 If an information-state developed in WM matches a structure in LTM, a new structure is stored in LTM (WM  LTM)

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning11 Problem Solving & Abduction Sanford’s (1985) 1 A problem  schemata in LTM 2 Manipulation of this mapping in WM 3 WM  LTM: a new structure stored in LTM 4 Abduction: The new knowledge-state which a solved problem represents can often be achieved by introducing information from sources external to the problem-statement

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning12 Mathematical Mapping n f: X  Y For every x  X there exists exactly one y  Y such that y=f(x) n Is geographical mapping a species of mathematical mapping? n Cartography is seen as a type of mathematical modeling involving abstraction n Domain?

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning13 Cognitive Mapping: Formal Definition Downs and Stea (1973) formally define cognitive mapping as: … a process composed of a series of psychological transformations by which an individual acquires, codes, stores, recalls, and decodes information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in their everyday spatial environment

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning14 About Cognitive Maps (Neisse, U.,1976) n An individual’s cognitive map is an active information seeking structure of which spatial imagery is but one aspect n Cognitive maps are created as the result of active and passive modes of information processing

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning15 Cognitive Mapping: Information Processing n Generally, active information processing gives the greatest meaning to the information processed and produces more information for the perceiver n The information produced by locomotion is fundamental to an individual’s spatial orientation

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning16 Cognitive maps: Content and Form n Cognitive maps are also made up of memories of objects and kinesthetic, visual and auditory cues (Griffin, D. R. 1973) n Aside from the way cognitive maps are formed, the types of information stored in a cognitive map are also of interest

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning17 What are cognitive maps made up of? Kuipers (1983) suggests that a cognitive map consists of five different types of information, each with its own representation: topological metric route descriptions fixed features and sensory images

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning18 Cognition: Independent Variables n An individual’s cognition of the environment is not only a function of the behavior by which information is obtained but also depends on the characteristics of the environment n The amount of information gained by each sensory modality is also environmentally dependent

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning19 Personal Nature of Cognitive Maps n How the observer interprets and organizes a common exterior form is unique (Lynch) n This interpretation governs how the observer directs his attention and this in turn affects what is seen/learned. So at both a societal level and a cultural level cognitive maps are highly individualistic

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning20 References (1) n Downs, R. M. & Stea, D. (1973). Cognitive Maps and Spatial Behavior. Process and Products. In Image and Environment, (Downs, R. M. & Stea, D. Eds.), Aldine Publishing Co., Chicago, pp 8-26 n Griffin, D. R. (1973) Topographical orientation. In Image and Environment, (Downs, R. M. & Stea, D. Eds.), Aldine Publishing Co., Chicago. pp n Neisse, U. (1976).Cognition and reality, WH Freemn, San Francisco.

Summer 2001 Mara Alagic: Mapping for Learning21 References (2) n Kuipers, B. (1983) The cognitive map: Could it be any other way. In Spatial Orientation: Theory, research and application, (Pick, H. L. & Acredolo, L. P. Eds.) Plenium Press, New York. pp n Billinghurst, M. & Weghorst, S. The use of sketch maps to measure cognitive maps of virtual environment ( 1/paper.html)