BASIC STEPS OF CARRYING OUT RESEARCH  Select a research topic.  Formulate a research question/problem/statement of purpose.  A Research Problem is a clear, concise statement of the purpose of a research investigation. a) It provides a focus for the researcher. b) It gives the reader and user of research important information--it helps the reader to decide if the research is important or interesting and makes the research much easier to understand.

Sources for Research Problems  Investigator’s interests and experiences.  Applying theories.  Replication.  Clarification of contradictory results.

Criteria for evaluating research problems a) The problem must be researchable. b) The problem must be important. c) The problem should indicate the type of research. d) The problem should specify the type of population. e) The problem should specify the variables. f) The problem should be clear.

The following topics are non-researchable. Reframe them to become researchable a. Should we teach sex education in elementary schools?  What is the difference in knowledge and attitudes of fifth-graders taught sex education compared to fifth-graders who are not taught sex education?  b. Should the school day be longer? What is the relationship between length of school day and SAT scores of high school students?

The following topics are non-researchable. Reframe them to become researchable (cont.)  Review the literature dealing with the research question.  Develop one or more hypothesis based on the research question. –Hypotheses are educated “guesses” or tentative expectations about a correct solution to a problem, descriptions, possible relationships, or differences.

Definitions a) Research hypothesis--a statement of expected results b) Statistical hypothesis—Statistical statement of possible results usually stated in what is called a Null hypothesis c) Null hypothesis—Statistical statement of no relationship.

Relationship of research problems, research hypotheses, and null hypotheses Research problemResearch hypothesis Null hypothesis Is there a relationship between teachers’ attitudes toward the curriculum and student achievement? There is a positive correlation between teachers’ attitudes toward the curriculum and student achievement. There is no correlation between teachers’ attitudes towards the curriculum and student achievement.

The following topics are non-researchable. Reframe them to become researchable (cont.)  Prepare a research plan that describes: a)How many and what kinds of subjects will participate in the study. b)The variables and their associated values to be studied c)How the variables will be studied  d) How the findings will be analyzed

The following topics are non-researchable. Reframe them to become researchable (cont.)  Carry out a pilot study using a small number of subjects.  Make necessary changes in carrying out the final study based on the information obtained in the pilot study.  Carry out the final study.  Prepare a written report of the final study.  Disseminate the findings of the study.

Validity and Reliability of Educational Measures  Validity—the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.  Was the research process a valid one for answering the research question?  A test is not valid per se; it is valid for a particular purpose and for a particular group.  Content validity—the degree to which a test measures an intended content area.  Construct validity—the degree to which a test measures an intended hypothetical construct, e.g. intelligence.

Internal and External Validity  Internal validity—refers to whether the research process yields a result that is valid in the research context. –Is the answer to the research question valid for the people on whom the research was done, in the place the research was done?  External validity—refers to whether the answer to the research question is valid in a larger context—for other people at other times, in other places.

Reliability  Reliability—dependability, or trustworthiness.  The degree to which a test consistently measures whatever it measures.  Expressed numerically as a coefficient  Perfect reliability = 1.00  Very good reliability = greater than.90  Acceptable reliability = between.80 and.90  Inadequate reliability = below.60

Validity vs. Reliability  A valid test is always reliable but a reliable test is not necessarily valid. Discuss.