Academic Writing for FYP Students: Applied Languages The Writing Centre, UL www.ul.ie/rwc Academic Writing for FYP Students: Applied Languages Seminar 3 Íde O’Sullivan, Lawrence Cleary Regional Writing Centre

Plan of Seminars Seminars: Weeks 5, 6, 7 Wednesdays 2–3 pm A1-052 One-to-One Sessions: visit our website (www.ul.ie/rwc) to check out our tutors and make an appointment

Plan of seminars Seminar 1 (Week 5): Getting started Layout/presentation/structure Referencing Seminar 2 (Week 6): Writing an effective abstract, introduction and conclusion Developing and sustaining an argument Seminar 3 (Week 7): Academic writing style Editing and proof reading

Academic Writing Style

Academic writing style Academic writing is clear, concise and comprehensive Clarity of expression ‘Clear writing is direct, orderly, and precise’ (Ebest et al., 1997). Logical method of development Effective transition signals Good signposting Coherent Consistent point of view Conciseness (careful word choice) The importance of clear and fluent expression. Ebest, Sally B., Gerald J. Alred, Charles T. Brusaw, and Walter E. Oliu. Writing from A to Z: The Easy-to-Use Handbook, 2nd Edition. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company. Clarity: ‘A logical method of development and effective transition signals given your writing coherence, enabling the reader to connect your thoughts without conscious effort and to concentrate solely on absorbing your ideas. Techniques of emphasis and subordination distinguish the key ideas from those of less importance. A consistent point of view establishes through whose eyes, or from what vantage point, the reader views the subject. Conciseness contributes to clarity and saves your reader’s time. Careful word choice helps you avoid vagueness and ambiguity (Ebest et al. 97).

Academic writing style Clarity of expression Avoid repetition of words Avoid repetition of ideas Delete redundant words Be direct: avoid using too many words Avoid ambiguity Avoid unclear pronoun reference Choose strong active verbs Use parallel constructions

Academic writing style What is wrong with the following? “In Florida, where the threat of hurricanes is an annual event, we learned that it is important (1) to become aware of the warning signs. (2) There are precautions to take, and (3) deciding when to take shelter is important.” (Purdue OWL 2006) http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/

Academic writing style Formality/register: Academic writing uses a formal style Avoid informal language especially colloquial expressions, idioms and slang. Do not use contractions (don’t, can’t). Avoid subjective language (“I heard it said…”) Appropriate language Use bias-free language. Avoid language that privileges one race, colour, gender, persuasion, or religion over another.

Academic writing style Voice: Replace personal references, e.g. "I aim to" with passives, e.g "the aim of the project is". Use language that emphasises the subject, rather than the writer. Vocabulary Academic writing conventionally uses a more lexically dense, varied vocabulary. Academic writing uses more subordination and passives than other genres.

Academic writing style Tense Do not mix verb tenses in compound predicates Be consistent Check for subject verb agreement Use verbs to emphasise the subject, not the writer Avoid Repetition Unfinished ideas

Academic writing style Be sure that sentences express a complete idea. Arrange ideas logically in paragraphs, logically dividing your ideas and presenting them linearly. Grammar, spelling, capitalisation and punctuation should be according to conventions. Do not use contractions. Be explicit; use signals.

Academic writing style Hedge. Distinguish between absolutes and probabilities. Absolutes are 100% certain. Probabilities are less than 100% certain. Be responsible. Provide traceable evidence and justifications for any claims you make or any opinions you have formed as a result of your research.

Editing and Proof Reading

Editing and proofreading What is editing? Macro and micro edits Types of edit Becoming the editor Traps – spelling, grammar, punctuation Common errors Tips for editing

What is editing? Editing a document is revisiting it for publication It is ‘sharpening a thought to a gemlike point and eliminating useless verbiage’ (Leedy, 2001: 54)

Types of edit Policy edit Integrity edit Screening edit Format edit Mechanical style edit Language edit Substantive edit Policy edit: FYP booklet (cover page/title page/abstract) Integrity edit: Do all the parts of the publication match (TOC, page numbers, figures/tables) Screening edit: Editorial standards laid out in the FYP booklet Format edit: Margins, font pagination Mechanical style edit: capitalisation, abbreviation Language edit: fluency, spelling, grammar, punctuation Substantive edit; meaningful content / coherence

Macro and micro edits Macro Issues content and organisation logical sequence of ideas audience adaptation purpose Micro Issues grammar style format Only edit one thing at a time

Revision Revising the structure Introduction A clear logical structure Your arguments / evidence Conclusion Revising the research methodology/design and methods Revising the content Accuracy Style Use of words Step back - become the editor See revision as a distinct stage in the writing process Don’t attempt to revise everything at once – revise a number of times checking something different each time Structure: Read through quickly - reassurance What is good What needs to be improved on? What is clearer now that you have finished writing the draft?

Revising the structure Introduction Have you stared what you are doing and why? Have you outlined the structure? Have you mapped the plan? A clear logical structure Did you lead the reader clearly through the essay/FYP? Did you follow the map outlined in the introduction? Did you give directions to the reader? (check coherence, topic sentences and transition signals) Have you delivered on all your promises? Check your topic sentences in each paragraph Check your transition signals

Revising the structure Your arguments / evidence Is each argument developed sufficiently? Do you give enough evidence to support your argument? Do you use the appropriate language to reflect the evidence? Is the content of each paragraph relevant? Does irrelevant information get in the way? Conclusion “Show not tell” (Greetham, 2001:265)

Revising the research methodology Is the methodology appropriate? Are the following clear and appropriate? Sampling strategy Data collection Data analysis Are the findings presented clearly? Are the findings supported by sufficient data? How important are the findings?

Revising the content Accuracy Facts: Is the content accurate? Quotations: Is it clear which ideas are mine / those of others? Are all sources and references acknowledged? Is everything in the bibliography?

Revising the content Style / use of words Final read Are there words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs that are unnecessary? Will the reader get lost in long sentences? Are there any obscure / ambiguous words? Is the appropriate voice used? Are there unnecessary modifiers? Final read Does it flow smoothly / read well? Is it interesting? Is the pace / rhythm appropriate? Does it look neat and professional? Style: simplicity and economy of words Logical Interesting Brevity State things as clearly as you can Do not overcomplicate / undercomplicate things Clear/strong verbs: thinking suspiciously vs suspecting Pin down your ideas with the right words Words are the vehicels for your ideas

Copyediting / Proofreading This is the careful editing of each line and each graphic to ensure that the material is expressed in simple, clear correct English Checking errors in spelling, punctuation, grammar, format, sentence structure Proofreading is not editing in the broader sense – it is an effort to achieve correctness in the elements mentioned above Correctness is the most important criterion of excellence

Spelling Make sure to set the language to BrE or AmE but stick to one (-ise/-ize) Standard forms Double letters Don’t rely on spell check – it doesn’t catch everything - for foe - form from - quiet quite - practice practise - affect effect Grammer – grammar - grammatical

Grammar Sentence structure Complete sentences Agreement Tense Grammar check is not always correct - passive sentences - defining and non-defining clauses The woman who lives in apartment No. 34 has been arrested. Mrs. Jackson, who is very intelligent, lives on the corner.

Punctuation Commas, semi-colons, full stops Apostrophe its Vs it’s Possessives The dog’s bone The dogs’ bone The horses’ mouths Seamus’ car Capitalisation

Tips for editing Set it aside for a few days and come back with a fresh eye Get someone else to proofread it as well as you Use the print preview button to check layout before you print Always proofread on hardcopy Hold paper below the line you are proofreading Use the find button to make changes Be consistent!! Editing a reference list is separate

Editing a reference list Check that in-text dates and page numbers match reference list Only enter names in reference list that you have mentioned in your text – it’s not a bibliography Make sure that if a name is mentioned in the document that is in included in the reference list Do a separate edit of your reference list, checking everything matches, everything is included and it is consistent

Common errors Consistency of layout Spelling, punctuation and grammar Syntax Correct font and spacing Word or letter substitution Transposition of letters Omission of a line or lines, which does not outwardly affect the meaning Check finished work with original Dates, proper names and place names, and figures Complete labelling of diagrams, tables, graphs, etc