Chapter 6 EDUCATION The Group Struggle By: Joy Gentry

Multiple Goals in Educational Policy w More and better schooling is a widely recommended solution to the problems that confront American society. w Nearly all the nation’s problems are reflected in demands placed on the nation’s schools. w Educational policy affects a wide variety of interests and stimulates a great deal of interest group activity.

Broad Categories of Group Interests w Teachers w Taxpayers w School Board Members w School Administrators w Parents

School Enrollment w Today about 50 million pupils attend grade school and high school in America -- about 44 million attend public schools and about 6 million attend private schools. w About 15 million students are enrolled in institutions of higher education.

Battling Over the Basics w The vital question is -- what should be taught in schools. Public sentiment is in favor of teaching the basic “three Rs.” w Parents are less enthusiastic about emotional growth, getting along with others, self expression, self image, and cultural enrichment.

Test Scores w Declining standardized test scores are blamed on schools failure to teach the basic skills. w Professionals argued that it was really a function of how many students took the test. More students now are taking the tests. In the past only college-bound students took the test.

“Recentering” SAT Scores w In 1996 the College Board decided to “recenter” the SAT scores in recognition of the fact that national averages were unlikely to ever recover to the 500 mark. w Now it is possible to miss a few questions and still score a perfect 800. More than 500 students a year now register a perfect 1600 combined verbal and math scores.

Cross National Comparisons w Educational performance is also measured by comparing scores of American students with students of other nations, usually in math and science. w American students can at best be described as mediocre. w In top performing countries, education has a higher cultural priority, and educational standards and testing are determined at the national level rather than by states and school districts.

A Nation at Risk w The decline in SAT scores ended in the ‘80s. w A “back to basics” citizens’ reform movement in education was influenced by the 1983 report by the National Commission on Excellence in Education entitled “A Nation at Risk.”

The commission’s recommendations set the agenda for educational policy debate. w Minimum high school curriculum: 4 years- English; 3 years-math; 3 years-social science; and 1/2 year-computer science. w Four to six years foreign language. w Standardized tests for all subjects. w More homework, a seven-hour school day, and a 200- to 220-day school. w “Performance-based” salaries for teachers and rewards for “superior” teaching.

Educational Groups w Interest group activity in education involves a wide array of racial, religious, labor, and civil rights organizations, as well as citizens’ and educational groups. w Today school issues are so complex that the school superintendent and his administrative assistants exercise more and more control over the day to day operations of the school.

Who should govern our schools? Professional educators or citizens? w Three professional educators groups: w 1. Teachers w 2. Administrators w 3. Faculties of colleges and universities w This last group interacts with state departments of education, diffuses educational innovations, and influences requirements for teacher certification.

Teacher’s Unions w Most of the nation’s teachers are organized into either the National Education Association or the American Federation of Teachers. w State and district chapters of both unions have achieved collective bargaining status in most states and large urban school districts. w Both lobby Congress as well as the White House.

Voters and Taxpayers w School politics at the community level differ from one community to another. w Usually a small band of voters turn out for school elections. w Interestingly, the larger the voter turnout in a school referendum, the more likely the defeat of educational proposals.

School Boards w School board members are usually selected largely from concerned parents and local civic leaders. w Evidence shows that people who are interested in education and have some knowledge of what the schools are doing tend to support education more than the less informed citizens.

Racial and Religious Groups w Due to frequent involvement of racial and religious issues in education, there are several interest groups that become involved in educational policy. w These well-established national organizations have long led battles in federal courts over segregation, prayer and Bible reading, and public financing of religious schools.

Federal Government’s Role in Education w Traditionally, education in the U.S. was a community responsibility. Now, state governments have assumed major responsibility for public education. w State and local taxpayers have always borne over 90% of the cost of public education; the federal share has never exceeded 10%. w Federal expenditures for higher education have never exceeded 15%.

Federal government’s interest in education is a long-standing one. w Norwest Ordinance of 1787 w Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 w Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 w 1946 National School Lunch and Milk Program w Federal Impacted Areas Aid Program of 1950 w National Defense Education Act of 1958 w Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 w Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981 w 1960’s Head Start Program w Federal Aid and Educational Quality

Educational Reform and Parental Choice w Goals 2000: Educate America Act w - every child must start school ready to learn w -a 90% high school graduation rate w - U.S. first in world math and science w achievement w -every American will become literate w -drug-free and violent-free schools

Clinton Initiatives w -support for national testing and additional federal funds for school construction w -tax credits and deductions for college tuition w Who will set national academic standards and how will state progress toward standards be measured?

What works? w Parental Choice w Charter Schools w Magnet Schools w Privatized Public Schools w Educational Vouchers

Battles Over School Finances w Educational spending varies enormously across the U.S. w National per student expenditure is $5,500. w In 1995 educational expenditures ranged from $3,431 to $9,206. w Inequalities among school districts. w School inequalities as a constitutional issue.

Public Policy: Higher Education w Public higher education enrolls three-fourths of the nation’s college and university students. w State governments carry the major burden of higher education in America through their support of state colleges and universities. w Federal support for research, plus various student loan programs, are an important contribution to higher education.

Religion in Education w “ Free Exercise” w “No Establishment” w Government Aid to Church-related Schools w The “Wall of Separation” w Avoiding “Excessive Entanglement” w Prayer in Public Schools Religious groups, private school interests, and public school defenders frequently battle over the place of religion in education. The U.S. Supreme Court has become the referee in the group struggle over religion and education. The Court must interpret the meaning of the “no establishment” clause of the First Amendment of the Constitution as it affects government aid to church-related schools and prayer in public schools.

Conclusions w American education reflects all of the conflicting demands of society. w Interest groups have inspired a back-to-basics movement in schools. w Conflict between citizens and professional educators is reflected in arguments over “professionalism” versus “responsiveness” in public schools. w Professional educational groups and teachers’ unions have long lobbied for increased federal funding of education. w There is little direct evidence that increased funding of schools improves the educational performance of students. w Current reforms in education center on choice plans. Choice would empower parents and end the monopoly of school administrators. w The battle of the place of religion in education continues.