Efficiency and Exchange

Market Equilibrium and Efficiency A market equilibrium is efficient… …if price and quantity take any other than their equilibrium values, a transaction that will make at least some people better off without harming others can always be found.

A Market in Which Price Is Below the Equilibrium Level D S 2.50 2.00 1.50 Price ($/gallon) 1.00 .50 1 2 3 4 5 Quantity (1,000s of gallons/day)

Quantity (1,000s of gallons/day) How Excess Demand Creates an Opportunity for a Surplus-Enhancing Transaction 2.50 Quantity (1,000s of gallons/day) Price ($/gallon) D S 1 2 3 4 5 2.00 1.50 1.00 .50 1.25 If P = $1 then QS = 2,000 gallons/day At 2,000 gallons the consumer is willing to pay $2 and the MC = $1 If the buyer pays $1.25 for an extra gallon, producer is $.25 better off, and the consumer is $.75 better off, or economic surplus increases by $1.00 At $1, the market is not efficient

Quantity (1,000s of gallons/day) How Excess Supply Creates an Opportunity for a Surplus-Enhancing Transaction Quantity (1,000s of gallons/day) Price ($/gallon) D S 1 2 3 4 5 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 .50 1.75 If P = $2 then QD = 2,000 gallons/day Additional output costs only $1 This is $1 less than a buyer would pay If the buyer pays the seller $1.75, the buyer gains an economic surplus of $0.25 then the seller gains an economic surplus of $0.75

Market Equilibrium and Efficiency When price is above or below the equilibrium, the quantity exchanged will be below the equilibrium. The vertical value on the demand curve (marginal benefit) is greater than the vertical value on the supply curve (MC). Only the equilibrium will maximize economic surplus.

Cash on the Table When any “frictions” (typically government regulation) prevents the market price from reaching its equilibrium level, the total economic surplus (economic benefits less opportunity costs) available for buyers and sellers is diminished. Mutually beneficial exchanges are always possible when a market is out of equilibrium. When people have failed to take advantage of all mutually beneficial exchanges, there is "cash on the table.”

Social optimality The socially optimal quantity of any good is the quantity that maximizes the total economic surplus that results from producing and consuming the good. Cost-benefit principle keep expanding production of the good as long as its marginal benefit is at least as great as its marginal cost. Socially optimal quantity is that level for which the marginal cost and marginal benefit of the good are the same.

The Cost of Preventing Price Adjustments Price Ceilings: Do They Help the Poor? A Price Ceiling for Housing Space Also known as rent control

Economic Surplus in an Unregulated Market for Housing Space Producer surplus = $900/day Consumer surplus = $900/day 2.00 D S 1.80 1.60 1.40 1.20 1.00 Without price controls: Equilibrium Price = $1.40 Consumer surplus = (1/2)(3,000)(.60) = $900/day Producer surplus = (1/2)(3,000)(.6) = 900/day Economic surplus = $1,800/day Price ($) .80 1 2 3 4 5 8 Quantity of Housing /day

The Waste Caused by Price Controls Price Ceiling set at $1.00 S 2.00 Consumer surplus = $900/day 1.80 Lost economic surplus = $800/day 1.60 1.40 1.20 1.00 Producer surplus = $100/day D Price ($) .80 With price controls: Producer surplus = (1/2)(1,000)(.20) = $100/day or a loss of $800/day Economic surplus = $1,000 or a loss of $800/day 1 2 3 4 5 8 Quantity of Housing /day

The Cost of Preventing Price Adjustments The reduction in economic surplus from a price ceiling will be underestimated when The consumers who receive the product are not the consumers who value it the most. Consumers take costly actions to enhance their chances of being served. Non-price competition

Non-price Competition If sub-lease is allowed, existing tenants may sub-lease part of their spaces to those tenants that are willing to pay more than the price ceiling. If sub-lease is not allowed, shortage and non-price competition will develop. Discrimination based on non-money considerations such as race, gender, marital status, pet ownership, and personalities Dissipation of rent

Rent Control in the Long Run If costs of maintaining and producing housing has increased, esp. during high inflation situation Quality of housing deteriorates Reduce excess demand or “shortage” Amount supplied would decrease in time as residential space (under rent control) will be converted to other uses, e.g., office space E.g. Housing in New York City and Los Angeles

The Cost of Preventing Price Adjustments Question What program could be used to help the poor get housing spaces that would be more efficient than a price ceiling?

When the Pie Is Larger, Everyone Can Have a Bigger Slice Surplus with price controls Surplus with income transfers and no price controls With price controls set at $1.00 the economic surplus is $1,000/day *R = economic surplus received by rich people *P = economic surplus received by poor people Without price controls & with income transfers economic surplus is $1,800/day *R & P have the same share and a much larger economic surplus

The Cost of Preventing Price Adjustments Question What would be a potential cost of income transfers?

The Cost of Preventing Price Adjustments Price Subsidies: Do They Help the Poor? By how much do subsidies reduce total economic surplus in the market for bread? Assume a small nation imports all its bread at the world price of $2.00

Economic Surplus in a Bread Market Without Subsidy Consumer surplus = $4,000,000/month Economic surplus maximized where MC($2) = MB($2) at 4 million loaves 5.00 Price of bread ($/loaf) 4.00 D S 2.00 World price = $ 3.00 1.00 2 4 6 8 Quantity (millions of loaves/month)

The Reduction in Economic Surplus from a Subsidy Assume a $1/loaf subsidy Consumers buy 6 million loaves Consumer surplus will increase to $9 million Economic surplus will fall by $1 million

The Reduction in Economic Surplus from a Subsidy The cost of the subsidy = $6 million/month The benefit of the subsidy = $5 million/month Loss of economic surplus = $1 million /month 5.00 Consumer surplus = $4,000,000/month Reduction in total economic surplus = $1,000,000/month Domestic price with subsidy 4.00 Price of bread ($/loaf) D S 3.00 World price = $ 2.00 1.00 2 4 6 8 Quantity (millions of loaves/month)

The Cost of Preventing Price Adjustments Price Subsidies How could we provide assistance to low income consumers more efficiently?

The Cost of Preventing Price Adjustments Economic Naturalist First-Come, First-Served Policies Why does no one complain any longer about being bumped from an overbooked flight?

Equilibrium in the Market for Seats on Oversold Flights Demand for remaining on the flight 60 33 Supply of seats Price ($/seat) 24 37 Seats

Equilibrium in the Market for Seats on Oversold Flights 60 24 27 33 37 Seats Price ($/seat) Supply of seats First-come, First-served Average reservation prices = (60+59+…+24)/37 = $42/passenger 4 bumped @ $42 each or $168 loss in economic surplus

Equilibrium in the Market for Seats on Oversold Flights Compensation Policy $27 = reservation price (compensation) to get 4 passengers to volunteer to stay The cost of the compensation = 4 x $27 = $108 minus the economic surplus to the passengers of $6 = $102 Supply of seats 60 27 Price ($/seat) 24 33 37 Seats

The Cost of Preventing Price Adjustments Example How should a tennis pro handle an overbooking problem?

The Cost of Preventing Price Adjustments Player Ann 9:50 A.M. $4 Bill 9:52 A.M. 3 Carrie 9:55 A.M. 6 Dana 9:56 A.M. 10 Earl 9:59 A.M. 2 Arrival time Reservation price 5 bookings for 3 slots All 5 show up for the lesson How can the tennis pro minimize the cost of rescheduling two students? HINT: First-come, First-served or compensation

The Cost of Preventing Price Adjustments What do you think? Why offer compensation when the cost of first-come, first-served to the seller is zero?

The Marginal Cost Pricing of Public Services Example How much should a city charge for water, electricity, or some other service?

The Marginal Cost Curve for Water 4.0 0.8 0.2 1 3 Spring Lake Ocean Three sources of water Spring: 1 million gallons/day @ 0.2 cents/gallon Lake: 2 million gallons/day @ 0.8 cents/gallon Ocean: 4 cents/gallon Cost (cents/gallon) Water supplied (millions of gallons/day)

The Marginal Cost Curve for Water Example How much should a city charge for water?

The Marginal Cost Curve for Water 4.0 0.8 0.2 1 3 Spring Lake Ocean Assume If P = 4 cents/gallon, Q = 4 million gallons Question Why should all residents pay 4 cents per gallon Cost (cents/gallon) Water supplied (millions of gallons/day)

Taxes and Subsidies Effect of a sales tax on price and quantity Imposition of a sales tax on goods lower their sales but increase their prices (in most cases). Does it matter whether the tax is imposed on consumer or producers? Economic incidence of a tax is independent of its legal incidence

Taxes and Subsidies Who bears the burden of the tax? Consumers or producers Depends on the relative elasticity of demand and supply Effect of Subsidies (negative taxes) Opposite effect to sales tax Taxes and Efficiency

The Effect of a Tax on the Equilibrium Quantity and Price of Avocados 3 Without a tax P = $3/lb and Q = 3 million lbs/month 2.50 3.50 S + tax 2.5 With a tax of $1/lb MC increases by $1/lb Supply shifts up by $1 P = $3.50; Q = 2.5 million Consumers and producers share the burden of the tax equally Producers receive $2.50/lb Consumers pay $3.50/lb 6 5 4 Price ($/pound) 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 Quantity (millions of pounds/month)

Government levies taxes on consumers: upward slopping supply Q1 S P Q P0 P1 D D’ t $t / unit P2 Q0 b a P1 – Net Price received by seller P2 – Gross Price received by the buyers (P0 +a) t = a + b a – borne by consumer b – borne by producer

Government levies taxes on sellers: upward slopping supply $t / unit P2 – Gross price received by seller P1 – Net price received by the seller a – borne by consumer b – borne by producer P S’ P2 S a P0 b P1 D Q1 Q0 Q

Government levies taxes on sellers: vertical supply $t / unit P0 – Price before/after the new tax P1 – Net price received by the seller after the new tax P S P0 Consumers bear no burden Producers bear full burden t P1 D Q0 Q

Government levies taxes on consumers: vertical supply Q P0 P1 D D’ Q0 t $t / unit P0 – Price received by the seller prior to the new tax P1 – Price received by the seller after the new tax P0-P1 = t Consumers bear no burden Producers bear full burden

Quantity (millions of cars/month) The Effect of a Tax on Sellers of a Good with Infinite Price Elasticity of Supply Assume a tax levy of $100 tax/car D S 2.0 $20,000 1.9 S + $100 $20,100 Supply shifts to $20,100 The burden of the tax falls entirely on the consumer Price ($/car) Quantity (millions of cars/month)

Taxes and Efficiency Who Pays a Tax? When supply is perfectly elastic, the tax burden will fall entirely on the consumer.

In a Nutshell Economic incidence of a tax is independent of its legal incidence It does not matter whether the government imposes the tax on the sellers or the buyers, the ultimate burden of the tax depends on the relative elasticity of demand and supply. In the case of an infinite inelastic supply curve (e.g., lands and human capital) , sellers bear the full burden of the tax, while consumers bear none. In contrast, consumers bear the full burden of the tax if the demand curve is perfectly inelastic.

Sales Tax on Food If Hong Kong government proposes to levy a sale tax on rice? Who bears most of the tax burden? Demand for food (relatively inelastic) and supply for food (relatively elastic). why?

Sales Tax on Food The Japanese government protects her local farmers and imposes import restrictions on many agricultural produces, e.g., apple. If a sale tax on apple is imposed in Japan, who bears most of the tax burden? Why?

Mandatory Provident Fund (MPF) Currently, employers contribute a half of the MPF (5%) and employees contribute another half of it (5%). Who bears the burden of the MPF? Employers or employees? If government shifts the MPF share from 50-50 sharing to 80-20 sharing (with employers contribute 80% of the MPF), does employees benefit from this new law?

Taxes and Quality of Goods If government levies a tax (flat rate) by the bottle of wine, what is its effect on the sales of high-quality to low-quality wine? Suppose Hong Kong government passes a law and subsidizes college students to buy computers. Each student gets $200 cash when the buy a computer, what is this law on the sales of high-end to low-end computers?

Taxes and Efficiency Question How will a tax on cars affect their prices in the long run?

Taxes and Efficiency Deadweight Loss The reduction in total economic surplus that results from the adoption of a policy

The Deadweight Loss Caused by a Tax 2.50 3.50 S + tax 2.5 Deadweight loss caused by tax S 6 5 4 Price ($/pound) 3 2 1 D 1 2 3 4 5 Quantity (millions of pounds/month)

Taxes and Efficiency Question How would you determine the economic feasibility of a tax?

Elasticity of Demand and the Deadweight Loss from a Tax 21 2.60 1.60 S + T 19 2.40 1.40 Deadweight loss D1 S 24 2.00 D2 Price ($/unit) Price ($/unit) Quantity (units/day) Quantity (units/day) The greater the elasticity of demand, the greater the deadweight loss from a tax

Elasticity of Supply and the Deadweight Loss from a Tax 57 2.65 1.65 S1 + T 63 2.35 1.35 S2 + T Deadweight Loss D S1 72 2.00 S2 Price ($/unit) Price ($/unit) Quantity (units/day) Quantity (units/day) The greater the elasticity of supply, the greater the deadweight loss from a tax

Taxes and Efficiency What do you think? Why would a tax on land be efficient? Would a tax on pollution increase economic surplus?

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