Handbook of Language & Ethnicity Chapter 20: Scandinavia By Leena Huss & Anna-Riita Lindgren

Languages of the Nordic Countries Denmark (Danish) –Faroes (Faroese + Danish) –Greenland (Inuit + Danish) Finland (Finnish + Swedish + Sámi) –Åland Islands (Swedish) Sweden (Swedish + Finnish + Sámi) Norway (Norwegian + Finnish + Sámi) [Finnish minorities are Tornedalian/Kven and also 20 th c immigrants] There are also heterogeneous immigrants (10% in Sweden, 1.4% in Finland)

Ethnic Revival Sámi movement began in 1950s and has become more vigorous; struggle against the Alta dam in 1970s and 1980s led to massive protests and organization; they lost the battle but made the majority take them seriously Tornedalian/Kven begin their movement in 1970s/80s Ethnic revival “forces the majorities to reassess their thoughts and actions”

Minority Movements as Emancipation Politics Emancipation politics restructures hierarchies In Nordic countries these are gradual reformations, not revolutions 19 th c nationalism emancipated Faroese, Finnish, and Norwegian, which had previously been dominated by Swedish and Danish But as some identities were formed, they in turn persecuted others, targeting them with assimilation policies

Revitalization of minority languages This begins in 1960s Ethnic activists do not strive for a state or monolingualism, they wish to develop their cultures without being stigmatized Aims are pluralistic state, tolerance, internationalism There have been some backlash phenomena, especially anti-Sámi groups in Norway and Finland

Language and Identity in Nordic Countries Ethnic revival: –Arctic minorities (Sámi & Tornedalian/Kven) in Norway, Sweden, Finland Sámi in Norway & Tornedalians (both 40K) > Sámi in Sweden (20K) > Kven (10,000) > Sámi in Finland (6,500) –Sweden Finns (Finnish immigrants in Sweden; 400K, an urban minority)

Where are the Tornedalians? Who are the Kven?Kven

Ethnic Minorities in the Arctic Areas Multiculturalism and multilingualism was the norm, though one’s living was gained through the native language Late 19th c countries adopted assimilation policies Modernization came after WWII, brought schooling (often boarding schools), transportation, media -- integrated Arctic into the nation-states

Ethnic Minorities in the Arctic Areas, cont’d. Laestadianism (religious movement) promoted minority languages and opposed modernization & assimilation Building of the welfare state addressed poverty and inequality by treating all the same > assimilation Modernization did not come at the same time everywhere -- in coastal areas where it came earlier, there was more assimilation/loss of language -- where it came later, ethnic revival came soon enough to save culture

Ethnic Minorities in the Arctic Areas, cont’d. Ethnic revival redefined democracy to include pluralism, guaranteeing right to ethnic identity along with citizenship 1970s -- realization that modernization was destroying the environment Minority cultures gained respect for their knowledge of sustainable use of the Arctic

On Identity Strategies and Language Many minority people have migrated out of traditional areas to cities, where there is less access to minority language in school Great individual variation between ethnic activists who choose to use minority language and others who try to cover up their ethnicity Usually the minority language is not used as a written language, except by a very few, though this is changing

On Identity Strategies and Language, cont’d. What is the “real” minority culture? Is it confined to the old traditions of previous generations? Stereotype of minority culture focuses on the past, not on the present reality, creating a tension Minorities should have the right to modernize without compromising their identity At the same time, past traditions need to be valued, rather than seen as “primitive”

On the Identity of the Group and the Language Establishment of ethnonyms –Rehabilitation of formerly pejorative “Kven” –“Lapp” > “Sámi” Development of written languages Acknowledgement of status of languages –Kven/Tornedalian as a separate language, not a dialect of Finnish

The Sweden Finns Debate and confusion over bilingualism –Studies showed benefits of bilingualism, but –Parents were often encouraged to use majority language with children, even if they spoke it badly 1976 Swedish Home Language Reform -- immigrant & minority children have right to receive instruction in the language that is “a living part of the home environment” –But in reality, this policy was assimilationist, merely providing transition to majority language –1980s-90s both activist and anti-pluralist groups have gained strength and home-language instruction has been reduced -- “Swedish-only” ideology & recession

Sweden Finnish Minority Identity Sweden Finns are the largest minority group in Scandinavia, and Swedish-Finnish cooperation is historically strong, yet Sweden Finns are strongly stigmatized, despite support from EU and even from Swedes in Finland Proposed creation of Sweden Finnish Parliament (like Finland Swedish Parliament and the Sámi Parliaments) Some have tried to establish private schools for Finnish in Sweden 1975 Sweden Finnish Language Board deals with issues of variance from standard Finnish

Ethnic Languages and Minority Populations Scandinavian speakers (Swedes, Danes, Norwegians) share a linguistic unity, and all others are in a linguistically weaker situation There is some debate over the role of English as a language of Nordic cooperation

Summary Assimilation has been challenged by ethnic revival Ethnic revival aims for pluralistic, multilingual society (at odds with nationalism) Schooling, media, and public life play crucial role in minority language survival Creating “a world tolerant of linguistic and ethnic diversity” is a challenge for the future