Cognitive Development: Broad Theories and Approaches

4 Theories of Cognitive Development 1.Piagetian Theory 2.Information Processing Theories 3.Core-Knowledge Theories 4.Sociocultural Theories

Cognitive vs. Social Development Cognitive Development ~ development of perception, attention, language, problem solving, reasoning, memory, and conceptual understanding Social Development ~ development of emotions, personality, family and peer relationships, self-understanding, aggression, and moral understanding.

Piagetian Theory: Child as Scientist He offered a constructivist theory (the active child)--child is motivated to learn does not need rewards to do so. Saw children as generating hypotheses, performing experiments, and drawing conclusions

3 Processes Assimilation = translate new info into a form you already have/understand Accommodation = When this new info doesn’t fit you need to restructure your “theories” Equilibration = balancing assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding

Piaget’s stage theory pre-operational sensori-motor formal operations concrete operations 10-13yr0-2 yr2-6 yr7-10 yr

Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2 years) [No need to know specific substages] Begin with simple reflexes and sensory-motor skills and through assimilation/accommodation learned (theory is weak on HOW such concepts were acquired) *Over this stage infants increase their ability to hold mental representations Infants live largely in the present --“out of sight, out of mind”

Object Permanence Piaget claimed that until 8 mths of age infants did not understand object permanence--that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view (e.g. failed to reach under cloth for toy that was just hidden) BUT…

Deferred Imitation Deferred imitation is the repetition of other people’s behavior after a delay Occurs around mths Evidence of persisting mental reps.

Preoperational Stage (ages 2 - 7) They acquire symbolic representation-- the ability to see one thing to stand for another (e.g. seen in their pretend play and in their language acquisition). Scale model studies

Preoperational Stage (ages 2 - 7) viewed by Piaget as only being able to focus on one aspect of an event of problem--even when multiple aspects are important Centration: Centering attention on one dimension.

Preoperational Stage (ages 2 - 7) Children in this stage are viewed by Piaget as not being capable of operations (i.e. pre- operational)--that is, they can’t perform reversible mental activities E.g. conservation concept

Conservation Concept

Siegler on Conservation Tasks

Preoperational Stage (ages 2 - 7) Egocentrism: According to Piaget, children at this stage are also limited in their ability to take someone else’s perspective--they only see it from their own point of view The 3 Mountain Task

Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-12) understand conservation. begin to reason logically about concrete objects but have difficulty with abstract concepts and hypotheticals. Difficulty reasoning systematically (e.g. --the pendulum problem).

Formal Operations Stage (ages 12+) begin to think abstractly and hypothetically –E.g. Fondness for SciFi/Fantasy –E.g. Comments like “what would you do if you could be 13 again?” “Do you think there is another planet out there with another ‘you’ on it?” now capable of systematic and scientific reasoning Unlike the other stages Piaget believed that some adults never reach this stage.

Strengths  A good overview of children’s thinking at different points  Appealing due to its breadth  Fascinating observations Weaknesses/Criticisms  Stage model depicts children’s thinking as being more consistent than it is  children are more cognitively competent than Piaget recognized  understates contribution of the social world  vague about cognitive processes/mechanisms that produce cognitive growth Where Piaget Left Us

Information-Processing Theories View children as undergoing continuous cognitive change. Describe how cognitive change occurs. Mostly concerned with the development of learning, memory, and problem- solving skills.

Information Processing Theories: Child as Problem Solver difficulties solving some problems because of lack of planning/use of strategy 3 factors that lead to a lack of planning in young children 1.Sometimes plans fail (high failure rate leads them to believe planning is “not worth the effort”) 2.Young children are overoptimistic (e.g they think they can remember more, get more done, and communicate more effectively than they can) 3.Inhibition is difficult

Information Processing Theories Cognitive growth is the result of three processes working together and improving with age: 1.Basic Processes (e.g. encoding, generalizing, recognizing objects) 2.Use of Strategies (e.g. rehearsal, selective attention) 3.Content Knowledge (e.g. scripts) - greater knowledge of the world increases ability to encode and recall info because it makes it easier to relate new material to old. (e.g. playing first vs. 10 th card game)

Speed of Processing Increases with Age Myelination (the covering of neurons with myelin, a fatty substance that insulates the axon) helps speed processing and increases the child’s ability to rule out distractions. Both experience AND brain maturation (Innate--pre- programmed development) and experience play a role in changes in information processing (e.g. paving roads + beating pathways analogy)

Core-Knowledge Theories: Child as Theorist Principles of core-knowledge theories: –Children have innate cognitive capabilities –Children form informal theories to help them organize related information (naïve physics, psychology, and biology) –Focus on areas (such as understanding people) that have been important throughout human history

Modularity and Domain Specificity objects numbers people

Principles of Modularity 1. Results in Domain Specificity--a special system dedicated to a particular domain (people, number, objects, faces, etc.)-- system answers questions specific to that area. e.g 2 balls need contact to move, but people don’t

Principles of Modularity 2.Fast and Mandatory 3.Restriction on Information Flow -Information Encapsulation and Lack of Access to Interlevels e.g. Hollow Mask/Face illusion

Principles of Modularity 4.Characteristic Breakdown Autism--Lack Naïve Psychology? Prosopagnosia -- Unable to Process Faces Wernicke’s aphasia--lack of meaning in language but grammar is intact (e.g. She swam everywhere he could go but when it flooped his way over my brother....) Broca’s Aphasia--lacks grammar but meaning is intact (e.g. chair fall over broke) * Not all skills (e.g. memory) or domains (e.g. language) have 1 specific location/system

Sociocultural Theories of Cognitive Development Cognitive development occurs in interpersonal contact—(interaction with parents, siblings, teachers, and playmates). Children are products of their cultures –Emphasize aspects of cognitive development that involves use of cultural tools, like symbol systems, artifacts, skills, and values. E.g. Vygotsky vs. Piaget: Whereas Piaget depicted children as trying to understand the world on their own, Vygotsky portrayed them as social beings intertwined with other people who were eager to help them learn and gain skills.

Sociocultural Theories: How Cognitive Change Occurs Guided participation: knowledgeable individuals guide learning Social scaffolding: More competent people provide temporary frameworks that lead children to higher-order thinking. Zone of proximal development: The range between what children can do unsupported and what they can do with optimal social support. Intersubjectivity: Shared communication –Joint attention: Infants and social partners focus on common referent. –Social referencing: Children look to social partners for guidance about how to respond to unfamiliar events.

The Visual Cliff and Social Referencing If Mom looks fearful, child won’t cross. If Mom looks happy, child will cross. Child uses emotional cues from social partner to interpret new things!

Conclusion Why so many different theories? The cognitive theories have contradictory features--It is not possible to create a unified grand theory –(though they don’t disagree on all aspects so in many ways are complementary). Each theory emphasizes different aspects and each has its strengths and weaknesses We incorporate insights from all four theories to help us understand children in different ways and in different settings.