Biological anthropology Humans have: 1. an evolutionary history: phylogeny All heritable changes that have brought humans to present form Biological evolution is not progressive e.g., does not take place to fulfill a purpose 2. an individual life history: ontogeny Phenotypic expression of traits & attributes Based on genetic and environment factors

Two Basic Ways of explaining natural phenomena 1. Supernatural – Immune from evidence – Immune from hypothesis testing – Explanations can’t be proved or disproved – Belief systems Accepted on faith. – superstitions, myths, religions, philosophies Important in social structuring – ethics, morals, laws Affect the way individuals behave toward one another – Can hold groups of individuals together OR – can keep groups of individuals apart. Enhance the psychological well-being of individuals. – provide hope and purpose to life Beliefs are transmitted by teaching

Ca. 42,000 religions

2. Scientific explanations – Science = a process for acquiring information about the natural world – Gotten through our senses Empirical evidence – Observations and experiments are repeatable – Facts are supported by evidence.

Scientific investigations (scientific method) 1. Something unusual is discovered….a fossil primate 2. Leads to a question: was this individual bipedal? 3. Hypotheses are developed. – hypothesis: a testable tentative explanation for an observation or result of an experiment. – A null hypothesis: (H 0 ) – An alternative hypothesis (H 1 ) 4. Approach: collect data (evidence) and attempt to reject (refute, falsify) each hypothesis. – Bias is removed by attempting to reject hypotheses. They can’t be proven.

Accumulations of verifiable facts lead to the discovery of fundamental truths = theories Theory: means something different to different groups of people. Strength of science as a process – W illingness to modify conclusions if new evidence dictates.

Cultural vs. biological evolution Culture: non-biological adaptations Sum total of learned traditions, beliefs, values, and inventions used by a particular society. Transmission between generations is non-genetic: teaching Cultural evolution is progressive Predictable, sequential improvements in a particular direction can be made through time.

Biological and cultural diversity Cultural anthropology Dani: New Guinea

An example of archeology Olsen-Chubbuck site Discovered in 1957 C. 140 mi. SE Denver

Cross-section of an ancient arroyo Buried by wind-borne deposits.

Part of the excavated arroyo. Arroyo was 170 feet long Remains of 193 bison Bison occidentalis not Bison bison Bones in three layers: Bottom: complete skeletons of 13 individuals Middle: bones of partially butchered individuals Top layer: individual bones and partially articulated bones in similar piles. Dated at 6,500 ybp

Projectile points associated with the bison bones. Material culture

Reconstruction of events 1. Time of year. 2. Wind direction 3. The stampede.

Social structure 75% of the bison were completely butchered. # of mature bulls, immature bulls, mature cows, immature cows, and calves This number of butchered bison would have produced 56,640 pounds of fresh meat 4,000 pounds of edible internal organs 5,400 pounds of fat. 100 people could have completed the butchering in half a day. Enough meat, internal organs, and fat to feed a group of 150 for 23 days.

Example of Prehistoric cultural evolution e.g. projectile points Stone industry – traditions ca. 11,200 years ago – Dent site - 43 miles NE of Denver – Mammoth hunters: Clovis points ca. 7,000 years ago – E Colorado – Bison hunters: Scottsbluff, Eden, Plainview points

Plainview point Clovis point Material culture