Helen Safa Economic Restructuring and Gender Subordination

Economic Growth : Latin America and the Caribbean experienced a considerable economic growth : Latin America and the Caribbean experienced a considerable economic growth Decline in agricultural employment Decline in agricultural employment Population more than doubled Population more than doubled Urban growth was contributed mostly to internal migration of women and young adults Urban growth was contributed mostly to internal migration of women and young adults Life expectancy also went to over 60 years in many countries Life expectancy also went to over 60 years in many countries Household sizes also decreased Household sizes also decreased Number of women headed households increased by 20% Number of women headed households increased by 20%

Education rates also increased Education rates also increased Women’s rates increased at a faster rate than men’s Women’s rates increased at a faster rate than men’s Women’s labor force also increased by 3 times Women’s labor force also increased by 3 times

Economic Crisis Rise in export prices Rise in export prices Agricultural products and minerals Agricultural products and minerals Interest rate and foreign debt also grew Interest rate and foreign debt also grew : unemployment increases by 48% : unemployment increases by 48% Wages declined 12-18% Wages declined 12-18% IMF and World Bank implemented different structural adjustment programs IMF and World Bank implemented different structural adjustment programs Ended in greater hardships for the poor Ended in greater hardships for the poor

Impact on Women Increased the importance of women’s roles in the household Increased the importance of women’s roles in the household : women in the workforce increased from 32% to 38% : women in the workforce increased from 32% to 38% Increased the demand for women in the work force Increased the demand for women in the work force Women are not only joining paid wage laborers, but also finding other sources of income Women are not only joining paid wage laborers, but also finding other sources of income Informal sector, migration, domestic production Informal sector, migration, domestic production

Puerto Rico and Dominican Republic have followed export led industrialization policies Puerto Rico and Dominican Republic have followed export led industrialization policies Changing policies in Cuba led to a decline in the full male employment Changing policies in Cuba led to a decline in the full male employment 1970: promoted women’s incorporation into paid employment 1970: promoted women’s incorporation into paid employment Socialist state made households less dependent on purchasing power to maintain its basic needs (lessened the dependence of male wages) Socialist state made households less dependent on purchasing power to maintain its basic needs (lessened the dependence of male wages) Led women to challenge the myth of the male breadwinner Led women to challenge the myth of the male breadwinner

Supplementary wage earners: women that work but still depend primarily on males as primary wage earners Supplementary wage earners: women that work but still depend primarily on males as primary wage earners Women are confined to poorly paying and unstable jobs Women are confined to poorly paying and unstable jobs State usually runs the jobs as well, emphasize the role women have as mothers and wives State usually runs the jobs as well, emphasize the role women have as mothers and wives

Women in the workplace State Policy: effects development strategy and demand for either male or female laborers State Policy: effects development strategy and demand for either male or female laborers Access to income-producing resources: includes level of wages, working conditions, alternate income sources, other job related factors Access to income-producing resources: includes level of wages, working conditions, alternate income sources, other job related factors Structure of the household: life cycle of women, number of contributors to the household economy, family support Structure of the household: life cycle of women, number of contributors to the household economy, family support Gender ideology: cultural and structural factors, affects the way women define their roles (supplementary wage earners or major providers) Gender ideology: cultural and structural factors, affects the way women define their roles (supplementary wage earners or major providers)

157 working women in Puerto Rico 157 working women in Puerto Rico 231 women in Dominican Republic from another study done by a private group 231 women in Dominican Republic from another study done by a private group 168 women in Cuba 168 women in Cuba

Since 1950, PR unemployment rates have been higher for men than women Since 1950, PR unemployment rates have been higher for men than women Cuba: several measures to encourage women to seek employment Cuba: several measures to encourage women to seek employment Greater educational opportunities Greater educational opportunities Special support services to lighten domestic load Special support services to lighten domestic load Puestos preferentes- positions in which women have preference Puestos preferentes- positions in which women have preference Family Code: 1975, encourage couples to share household responsibilities Family Code: 1975, encourage couples to share household responsibilities

PR and DR: women are assuming greater economic responsibilities in the house due to decline in real wages and male employment opportunities PR and DR: women are assuming greater economic responsibilities in the house due to decline in real wages and male employment opportunities Cuba: women are guaranteed equal pay for equal work, paid vacations, generous maternity benefits, wider array of support services Cuba: women are guaranteed equal pay for equal work, paid vacations, generous maternity benefits, wider array of support services 68% of women earn 200 pesos or more a month (45% of their husbands earn this amount)\ 68% of women earn 200 pesos or more a month (45% of their husbands earn this amount)\ Wide array of support systems may actually make women more expensive to employ than men Wide array of support systems may actually make women more expensive to employ than men

Women are found more often in service sectors Women are found more often in service sectors Education, public health Education, public health Pay is lower than industry, productive work Pay is lower than industry, productive work Cuban economic and management system instituted in 1976 may have increased occupational segregation Cuban economic and management system instituted in 1976 may have increased occupational segregation Put pressure on industry to lower cost and increase productivity Put pressure on industry to lower cost and increase productivity

Women textile workers experience much higher turn over rate due to family responsibilities Women textile workers experience much higher turn over rate due to family responsibilities Occupational segregation keeps women in inferior jobs and furthers the dependence on male breadwinners Occupational segregation keeps women in inferior jobs and furthers the dependence on male breadwinners PR and DR studied occupational segregation in garment factories because men were working the management jobs while women worked as production workers PR and DR studied occupational segregation in garment factories because men were working the management jobs while women worked as production workers

Proportion of unionized workers in PR dropped 20% in 1970 to 6% in 1988 Proportion of unionized workers in PR dropped 20% in 1970 to 6% in 1988 Partly because of union’s neglect of women workers Partly because of union’s neglect of women workers DR and PR have many factors contributing to the lack of worker solidarity DR and PR have many factors contributing to the lack of worker solidarity Youth of workers Youth of workers Turnover of workers Turnover of workers Recent entry into industrial employment Recent entry into industrial employment Family responsibilities Family responsibilities Lack of job alternatives Lack of job alternatives

DR and PR the majority of married, working women maintain that they share household decisions with their partners DR and PR the majority of married, working women maintain that they share household decisions with their partners Comes from their increased economic contribution Comes from their increased economic contribution 80% of married Dominican women workers that were interviewed still consider the husband to be the head of the household 80% of married Dominican women workers that were interviewed still consider the husband to be the head of the household Compared to PR sample, DR working women were younger, young children to support Compared to PR sample, DR working women were younger, young children to support Increased dependence on the male wages Increased dependence on the male wages

Female heads of households 27% in Dominican Republic 27% in Dominican Republic Shows a higher instability in marital status in Dominican women Shows a higher instability in marital status in Dominican women Children live with grandparents, mother sends money to them, and visits once a week or less Children live with grandparents, mother sends money to them, and visits once a week or less 16% in Puerto Rico 16% in Puerto Rico Heads are usually older and live alone or with family members, do not have children to support Heads are usually older and live alone or with family members, do not have children to support 35% in Cuba 35% in Cuba

3 generation households are more frequent among female headed households 3 generation households are more frequent among female headed households Female headed households are usually poorer Female headed households are usually poorer Fewer wage earners in house Fewer wage earners in house Even with the Family Code, the husbands role has not changed much in the household Even with the Family Code, the husbands role has not changed much in the household

Gender Ideology Women are traditionally seen as the caretakers of the children and the household chores Women are traditionally seen as the caretakers of the children and the household chores Leaves men as the primary breadwinners Leaves men as the primary breadwinners Casa/calle (private/public spheres): women in the home and men in the streets Casa/calle (private/public spheres): women in the home and men in the streets Maintain family honor and female virginity Maintain family honor and female virginity Fostered by Catholicism Fostered by Catholicism Never really followed by the poor or minority groups Never really followed by the poor or minority groups

Even though women have been allowed into the workforce, they still have limitations Even though women have been allowed into the workforce, they still have limitations Still seen as having domestic roles Still seen as having domestic roles Barred from some hazardous jobs because it could damage their reproductive capacity Barred from some hazardous jobs because it could damage their reproductive capacity Many women now view their paid labor as part of their domestic role Many women now view their paid labor as part of their domestic role