The Making of the Modern World Wednesday 27 October 9-10am THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: STAGES Tutor: Hilary Marland

The Industrial Revolution: Different Explanations Explanation 1. Until the 1970s (in particular c ): Economic Growth - key sectors (esp. cotton textiles) - factory production - use of new technologies Explanation 2. From the mid 1970s to the mid 1990s: Manufactures - a wider range of sectors - the continuity with pre-industrial manufacturing (manufactures) - consumption - two new concepts:- proto-industrialisation - industrious revolution David Cannadine, “The Present and the Past in the English Industrial Revolution ”, Past and Present, 108 (1984), pp Exp. 3. Since the mid 1990s: - the IR in a more global perspective, - new concept of ‘divergence’

Explanation 3. Since the mid 1990s: The Global Re-interpretation of the Industrial Revolution This has been brought about by: a. The industrial decline of Britain and most of Europe (the locations of the first IR) b. The industrialisation of Asia, especially China and India.

Explanation 3. Since the mid 1990s: The industrial decline of Britain and most of Europe Industry accounted for 40% of the British economy in 1900 but only 20% in The Industrial cities of the Midlands and the North of England declined in the early 1990s … but they revived in the late 1990s thanks to financial and consumer services and outsourcing within a global economy Historians asked: - what part was played in the history of industrialisation by Britain’s connections with the wider world - the relationship between the IR and Western dominion over the world

Explanation 3. Since the mid 1990s: The industrialisation of Asia (China and India)

Was this an achievement contingent upon a prior superiority in economy, mind or culture, or was it mere accident? ‘why did Europe industrialise and grow rich and Asia did not? And this question indirectly asks ‘why is Asia industrialising now?’ de-Europeanise of de-Anglicise the IR

David Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations (1998): - Europe had only seven of the world’s twenty-five largest cities in 1600 and only six in Before 1500 other parts of the world apart from Europe had wealth and knowledge far more advanced than Europe. - The 16th and 17th century voyages of discovery which formed the lead up to European industrialisation - the Chinese turned inwards towards a land Empire - in Europe the voyages of discovery opened trading opportunities which provided the lead-in to industrialisation. Explanation 3. Since the mid 1990s: (a) The Lost Opportunities of China

Andre Gunder Frank, Re-Orient (Berkeley, 1997) argues that Asia was the centre of the world until 1500 Chris Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World (Cambridge, 2004) ‘it was European ships and commercial companies, not Asian and African producers of slaves, spices, calicoes or porcelains which were able to capture the greatest ‘value added’ as world trade expanded in the eighteenth century’ and adds that ‘Europe connected, subjugated and made tributary other peoples’ “industrious revolutions”’. Explanation 3. Since the mid 1990s: (a) The Lost Opportunities of China

Explanation 3. Since the mid 1990s: (b) Global Luxury and Consumption Importance of Asian luxuries and exotic American foodstuffs These were stimuli to European consumer goods industries See: Maxine Berg, ‘In Pursuit of Luxury: Global History and British Consumer Goods in the Eighteenth Century’ Past and Present 182 (Feb ), pp Maxine Berg, Luxury and Pleasure in Eighteenth-Century Britain (2005), chap. 2

Europe moved from a common path of economic development to a new, higher level. Europe industrialised while China, but also India and other places around the world did not. Europe experienced a ‘Great Divergence’ thanks to: - abundant supplies of coal - presence of colonial markets. Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy (2000). Explanation 3. Since the mid 1990s: (c) The ‘Great Divergence’

7. Why was Britain first? 1.Comparative advantage in exportables - Britain was successfully exporting part of its industrial production (60% of British cotton output was exported compared to 10% in France) 2. International specialisation - colonial markets were particularly important and were dominated by Britain 3. War and economic protection - Britain did not bear the burden of physical destruction - but the country was heavily taxed to pay for the army and navy - it was successful at the end of the Napoleonic wars.

8. The First Industrial Revolution and the Second Industrial Revolution Technological achievement in the First Industrial Revolution according to Landes: 1.The substitution of human energy with machines - rapid, regular, precise and tireless 2. The substitution of animate with inanimate sources of power - steam power for animal, wind and water power 3. The use of new and more abundant raw materials - substitution of mineral for vegetable or animal substances - change from a wood to a coal fuel economy

Table 1. GDP per Capita in some of the major industrial countries, (in 1985 US $) United Kingdom1,4052,6103,2794,024 France1,0521,5711,9412,734 Germany9371,3001,7272,606 Italy9601,2101,3552,087 United States1,0482,2473,1064,854 Canada1,3471,6623,560 Japan ,114

8. The First Industrial Revolution and the Second Industrial Revolution new materials - steel, chemicals – Germany leads new energy - steam turbine, gas, petroleum, electricity – Germany leads mechanisation – machine tools, interchangeable parts – U.S. leads

9. Britain Falling Behind Table 2. The world Manufacturing Production, (in %) In % Great Britain 31,826,619,514,714,0 France10,38,67,16,4 Germany13,213,916,615,915,7 Italy2,4 2,73,12,7 Belgium2,92,52,22,02,1 Russia3,73,45,0 5,5 US23,328,630,135,335,8 Japan--0,61,01,2 Others12,414,016,216,6 World100,0

9. Britain Falling Behind Why did Britain fall behind Germany and the US in the period ? The markets of empire Competitive advantage in low productivity industry

10. The Modernisation of the Germany Economy 1. The State was proactive 2. High levels of investments – support of banks 3. Welfare state – worker’s housing, social insurance, pensions, etc. The result was: – the German population increased from 49 million to 65 million. Output increased from £23 per person to £37 per person a year Trade increased by 200%

Conclusion Was the IR the beginning of modernity?