Early Renaissance Painting in Italy and the Netherlands 14 th and 15 th Centuries Sources: Gardner’s Art Through the Ages Mark Harden’s Artchive Web Museum, Paris

A combination of political, economic, and religious factors contributed to a shift in social attitudes that began to occur in European culture in the period known as the Renaissance. These changes occurred first in Italy, where the growth of a new secular culture fueled an interest in the classical past. Amid the social, economic, and religious upheavals of the 14th century, there emerged a new interest in human values and the everyday world, inspired and guided by classical examples. By the beginning of the 14th century, the city states of Italy had established a thriving international trade and held a commanding position in the Mediterranean world. The Renaissance in Northern Italy

Italy's intellectual and cultural life was dramatically affected by the development of an Italian vernacular literature which, because of its accessibility, greatly expanded the audience for philosophical and intellectual concepts. Humanism, which was rooted in the study of the Latin classics, became the dominant theme in education. Schools and universities sought to develop models of the civil conduct and scholarly discipline that underpinned the principles of the self-governing republics. Humanism looked for inspiration to the spirit and ideals of classical antiquity and promoted the importance of the individual by focusing on human virtues and values based on reason rather than religious dogma. Letters And Learning

The transition from the Medieval era to the Renaissance accelerated during the 14th century. The medieval preoccupation with otherworldly values was gradually modified to include a new interest in the natural world. This was coupled with a revival of interest in the art of classical antiquity (ancient Roman sculpture and architecture), examples of which were available for artists to study. The result was a new more naturalistic art in which both figures and their surroundings are made to appear more as they might in the real world. The Birth of a New Artistic Culture:

St Francis 1235 Tempera on wood Church of San Francesco, Pescia Byzantine Influence Bonaventura Berlinghieri's altarpiece of Saint Francis (1235) is painted in the Italo-Byzantine style characterized by strict formality, linear flatness, shallow space, and an emphasis on the spiritual. The medieval narrative style also uses frames within the painting to tell the story of the saint’s life.

BONAVENTURA BERLINGHIERI, panel from the Saint Francis Altarpiece, Tempera on wood, approx. 5' x 3'6". San Francesco, Pescia, Italy.

Icon of Blessed Virgin Mary Icon of Blessed Virgin Mary 14th Century

Icon of Archangel Michael Icon of Archangel Michael 14th Century

Mosaic of Zoe and Constantine IX Monomachos

In his fresco of the Last Judgment in the church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere in Rome, Pietro Cavallini abandons Byzantine conventions and paints more sculpturally solid figures. PIETRO CAVALLINI, Seated Apostles, detail of the Last Judgment, ca Fresco. Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Rome. Sculptural Form in Painting:

In his altarpiece of the Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets, Cimabue moves beyond the strict conventions of the Italo- Byzantine style towards an increased naturalism in the treatment of space and in the solid three-dimentionality of the Virgin's throne. CIMABUE, Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets, ca. 1280–1290. Tempera on wood, 12' 7" x 7' 4". Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. A Final Summary of Byzantine Style:

CIMABUE, Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets, ca. 1280–1290. Tempera on wood, 12' 7" x 7' 4". Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.

The Italo-Byzantine style was abandoned altogether by Giotto di Bondone, who adopted a more naturalistic approach based on the observation of nature. In his Madonna Enthroned, forms are foreshortened and modeled in light and shade to create figures that have sculptural solidity and weight. GIOTTO DI BONDONE, Madonna Enthroned, ca Tempera on wood, 10' 8" x 6' 8". Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. A Material Image of a Heavenly Being:

Giotto (Detail) Madonna in Glory c Tempera on panel 128 x 90 1/2 in. (325 x 204 cm) Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Giotto's frescoes in the Arena Chapel at Padua include 38 framed pictures peopled with sculpturesque, weighty, emotionally expressive, quietly dramatic figures arranged in convincing spatial depth on a shallow stage. Gardner’s Art HistoryGardner’s Art History Visualizing the Body and the Soul

Scenes from the Life of Joachim: 1. Expulsion of Joachim from the Temple Fresco, 200 x 185 cm Cappella Scrovegni (Arena Chapel), Padua

Scenes from the Life of Joachim: 2. Joachim among the Shepherds Fresco, 200 x 185 cm Cappella Scrovegni (Arena Chapel), Padua

Scenes from the Life of Joachim: 3. Annunciation to St Anne Fresco, 200 x 185 cm Cappella Scrovegni (Arena Chapel), Padua

Scenes from the Life of Joachim: 4. Joachim's Sacrificial Offering Fresco, 200 x 185 cm Cappella Scrovegni (Arena Chapel), Padua

Scenes from the Life of Joachim: 5. Joachim's Dream Fresco, 200 x 185 cm Cappella Scrovegni (Arena Chapel), Padua

Scenes from the Life of Joachim: 6. Meeting at the Golden Gate Fresco, 200 x 185 cm Cappella Scrovegni (Arena Chapel), Padua

No. 6 Scenes from the Life of Joachim: 6. Meeting at the Golden Gate (detail) Fresco, 76,5 cm (full fresco: 200 x 185 cm Cappella Scrovegni (Arena Chapel), Padua

Scenes from the Life of Joachim: 6. Meeting at the Golden Gate, detail Fresco, 200 x 185 cm (full fresco) Cappella Scrovegni (Arena Chapel), Padua The Kiss

Giotto The Mourning of Christ c ; Fresco, Cappella dell'Arena, Padua

The spread of humanism and the growing interest in classical antiquity contributed significantly to the remarkable growth and expansion of artistic culture in 15th-century Italy. Political and economic change contributed to the rise of a new class of wealthy patrons who fostered art and learning on a lavish scale. Humanism emphasized: education: the rediscovery of the literature and art of the classical era individualism: the exploration of individual’s potential for excellence duty: voluntary participation in the social, political, and economic life of the community. Humanism: The Rebirth of Classical Culture

LORENZO GHIBERTI, east doors ("Gates of Paradise"), Florence Cathedral, Italy, Gilded bronze relief, approx. 17' high. Ghiberti's "Gates of Paradise" are comprised of ten gilded bronze relief panels depicting scenes from the Old Testament. Ghiberti creates the illusion of space using perspective and sculptural means. Ghiberti also persists in using the medieval narrative method of presenting several episodes within a single frame. Perspective: The Illusion of Space

LORENZO GHIBERTI, Isaac and His Sons (detail of FIG ), east doors, baptistery, Florence Cathedral, Italy, Gilded bronze relief, approx. 31 1/2" x 31 1/2".

Single Point Perspective

Double Point Perspective

Creating Shadows

The painter Masaccio introduced a new monumental style that revolutionized Italian painting. He manipulated light and shade (chiaroscuro) to give a tangible sense of three-dimensional substance to his figures. He applied the new linear perspective to create the illusion of spatial depth or distance. These innovations provided direction for future generations of painters. Masaccio's fresco of the Tribute Money in the Brancacci Chapel of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence shows psychologically and physically credible figures illuminated by a light coming from a specific source outside the picture. The light models the figures to produce an illusion of deep sculptural relief. The main group of figures stand solidly in a semi-circle in the foreground of a spacious landscape. Masaccio also employs linear perspective and aerial perspective to enhance the sense of space and distance. Chiaroscuro and Perspective

MASACCIO, Tribute Money, Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy, ca Fresco, 8' 1" x 19' 7". Masaccio, Tribute Money (1427)

Masaccio's starkly simple fresco of the Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden employs sharply slanted light from an outside source to create deep relief. The figures appear to have substantial bodily weight and move convincingly over the ground. MASACCIO, Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden, Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy, ca Fresco, 7' x 2' 11". A Picture of Sinners' Anguish:

Masaccio's Holy Trinity fresco in Santa Maria Novella embodies two principal Renaissance interests: realism based on observation, and perspective. MASACCIO, Holy Trinity, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy, ca Fresco, 21' x 10' 5". A Convincing Vision of the Trinity:

The architect Filippo Brunelleschi adopted a classically inspired rational approach to architecture that employed both classical architectural forms (e.g., round arches, columns) and a system of design based on carefully proportioned shapes (e.g., the square, circle) or units fitted together in strict but simple ratios. FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, west façade of Pazzi Chapel, Santa Croce, Florence, Italy, begun ca Renaissance Architecture:

LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, west façade of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy, ca. 1458–1470. Of Ratios and Rationality:

Filippo Brunelleschi studied the ancient monuments in Rome. His double-shelled dome for Florence Cathedral is original in section and designed around a skeleton of twenty-four ribs, of which eight are visible on the exterior. The structure is anchored at the top with a heavy lantern. A Crowning Achievement:

DONATELLO, Saint George, from Or San Michele, Florence, Italy, Marble (replaced in niche by a bronze copy), approx. 6' 10" high. Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence. A Knight in Marble Armor: The armored Saint George by Donatello was the patron of the guild of armorers and swordmakers. The figure stands with bold firmness. Donatalleo’s St. George

NANNI DI BANCO, Quattro Santi Coronati, Or San Michele, Florence, Italy, ca Marble, figures approx. life size. Four Martyred Sculptors: Nanni di Banco's group, the Quattro Santi Coronati, shows an early attempt to solve the problem of integrating figures and space on a monumental scale. Nanni created a unified spatial composition. The figures also exhibit a psychological unity. Their heads were inspired by Roman portrait busts. Nanni di Banco

Suggesting Motion in Stone: A sense of motion is conveyed in Donatello's Saint Mark by the weight-shifted stance of the figure. The saint's drapery also falls naturally and implies a body underneath. DONATELLO, Saint Mark, Or San Michele, Florence, Italy, Marble, approx. 7' 9" high. Donatello’s St. Mark

Powerful Bell-Tower Figures: Donatello's unconventional statue of "Zuccone" is powerfully and realistically characterized. His face is individualized and discloses a fierce personality. DONATELLO, prophet figure (Zuccone), from the campanile of Florence Cathedral, Italy, Marble, approx. 6' 5" high. Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence. Donatello’s Zuccone

Verrochio, Equestrian Monument to Bartolommeo Colleoni (1488)

Donatello David (ca. 1430) Bronze Height 158 cm Museo Nazionale Florence

David, Verrocchio, , height 125 cmFlorence, Museo Nazionale del BargelloVerrocchio cmFlorenceMuseo Nazionale del Bargello

The decline of medieval feudalism in European society and the rise of a merchant economy contributed to the creation of a new taste in art in northern Europe. Generally, artists in Flanders, France, and Germany were less interested in the classical past than artists in Italy. One aspect of the new taste in art is the increasing integration of religious and secular themes. Consolidating Political Power: Governments in Europe became increasingly more centralized, in the form of structured bureaucracies, royal courts, and parliamentary assemblies. The European monarchies consolidated and expanded their authority in systematic and comprehensive ways. Emerging Capitalism: New credit and exchange systems created a new capitalistic economic network across Europe. Divisiveness in the Church: Political instability was exacerbated by the religious crisis of the Great Schism. Gardner’s Art History Political, Economic, And Religious Developments In The 15th Century

An Opulent Prayer Book: In the Trés RichesHeures du Duc de Berry, the Limbourg Brothers include calendar pictures with the twelve months represented in terms of the associated seasonal tasks. The inclusion of everyday genre scenes reflects the increasing integration of religious and secular concerns in both art and life at the time. Gardner’s Art HistoryGardner’s Art History LIMBOURG BROTHERS September, from Les Trés Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, French Manuscript Illumination

LIMBOURG BROTHERS September, from Les Trés Riches Heures du Duc de Berry,

LIMBOURG BROTHERS detail from June, from Les Trés Riches Heures du Duc de Berry,

LIMBOURG BROTHERS August, from Les Trés Riches Heures du Duc de Berry,

October, the month of tilling and sowing, is represented along the left bank of the Seine. The view is from the vicinity of the Hôtel de Nesle, the Duc de Berry's Paris residence, from approximately the same vantage point as in the month of June. LIMBOURG BROTHERS October, from Les Trés Riches Heures du Duc de Berry,

LIMBOURG BROTHERS details from October, from Les Trés Riches Heures du Duc de Berry,

During the 15th century a new oil technique in painting was used to enhance the naturalistic representation of figures and objects with meticulous detail. In both sculpture and painting, textures are skillfully and minutely differentiated. Figures are lifelike and usually shown wearing heavy draperies with voluminous folds. Religious events are often shown in contemporary 15th-century settings where everyday objects may also function as religious symbols. Portraiture emerges as an independent genre. Medieval ideas and conventions, however, persist in the treatment of space, scale, and figure proportions, and in the visionary quality of such paintings as the Garden of Earthly Delights by Hieronymus Bosch. THE GUILDS The Art of Building a Career: A Flemish artist's profession was controlled by guilds. Admission into a guild was sought upon the completion of an apprenticeship under a master. Painters applied to the Guild of Saint Luke. Commissions for paintings were obtained through the guild, which also inspected the artist's paintings to ensure quality. Fifteenth Century Flemish Art: Oil Painting; Portraiture; Combining Secular And Sacred

JAN VAN EYCK, Ghent Altarpiece (open), Saint Bavo Cathedral, Ghent, Belgium, completed Tempera and oil on wood, approx. 11' 6" x 15' 1".

The exactitude found in the work of van Eyck and others was facilitated by the use of oil paint that allowed painters to build up their pictures by superimposing translucent paint layers (glazes) on a layer of underpainting. Flemish painting is characterized by deep, intense tonalities; the illusion of glowing light; and hard enamel-like surfaces. JAN VAN EYCK, Ghent Altarpiece, Saint Bavo Cathedral, Ghent, Belgium, completed The Developing Use of Oil Paints:

Capturing Class and Character: Rogier van der Weyden's honest and direct portrait of an unknown young woman is a faithful likeness that also reveals her individual character. It is composed in large, simple planes and volumes ROGIER VAN DER WEYDEN, Portrait of a Lady, ca Oil on wood, 141/2" x 103/4". National Gallery, Washington, D.C. (Andrew W. Mellon Collection).

Jan van Eyck's Man in a Red Turban is a secular portrait. It depicts a highly realistic representation of a merchant who is rich enough to commission a portrait of himself. JAN VAN EYCK, Man in a Red Turban, Tempera and oil on wood, approx. 10 1/4" x 7 1/2". Reproduced by courtesy of the trustees of the National Gallery, London. Portraiture: Meeting the Viewer's Gaze

JAN VAN EYCK, Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride, Tempera and oil on wood, approx. 32" x 23 1/2". National Gallery, London. In Jan van Eyck's skillfully painted double portrait, Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride, the couple stand in a Flemish bedchamber in which almost every object also serves a symbolic function. The painting may have served as a record of their marriage. For Better, for Worse:

Detail of Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride, 1434.

Van Eyck, Jan Van Eyck, Jan Detail from The Crucifixion and The Last Judgment Oil on canvas transferred from wood Each panel 22 1/4 x 7 3/4 in. (56.5 x 19.7 cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

MASTER OF FLÉMALLE, the Mérode Altarpiece (open), ca Tempera and oil on wood, center panel approx. 25" x 25". Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (Iconography explained.)Iconography explained

1515 Panel from the Isenheim altarpiece: oil on wood 269 x 307 cm (105 7/8 x 120 7/8 in.) Musee d'Unterlind en, Colmar Grunewald The Crucifixion

The Risen Christ 1515 Panel from the Isenheim altarpiece

Christ Carrying the Cross is a painting by Hieronymus Bosch created sometime between 1495 and It currently resides at National Gallery in London.Hieronymus Bosch

HIERONYMUS BOSCH, triptych of the Garden of Earthly Delights. Creation of Eve (left wing), Garden of Earthly Delights (central panel), Hell (right wing), Oil on wood, center panel 86 5/8" x 76 3/4". Museo del Prado, Madrid. Love and Marriage or Sex and Sin?