Phrase Structure Rules NP => (Det) (Adj) N (PP) PP => P NP

Phrase structure trees NP NP NP NP N Det N Det Adj N Det N PP John the boy the smart boy the boy P NP in Det N the bubble A tree diagram labeled with phrasal categories that shows structure of phrases, sentences. Node: A labeled branch point in a phrase structure tree.

Recursion Some phrasal categories may appear to the left or right of the arrow NP  (Det) N (PP) PP  P (NP) Recursion: the property of language that allows for the embedding of categories (which can yield infinitely long phrases)

PP P NP from Det N PP a boy P NP in Det N a bubble A tree diagram labeled with phrasal categories that shows structure of phrases, sentences. Node: A labeled branch point in a phrase structure tree.

VP => V (NP) (PP) (Adv) VP VP VP V V NP V NP PP Adv sang ate Det N sang Det N P NP badly the cake a song in Det N the shower

S NP VP Det N V NP The dog ate Det N the bone S  NP VP

S NP Aux VP Det N will V NP The dog eat Det N the bone S  NP Aux VP

Ambiguity The property of having two or more meanings. Lexical ambiguity Structural ambiguity Syntactic rules help us to do more than determine grammaticality

Lexical ambiguity Headlines: PROSTITUTES APPEAL TO POPE IRAQI HEAD SEEKS ARMS CHILD’S STOOL IS GREAT FOR USE IN GARDEN Lexical ambiguity: when a word has more than one meaning

Structural ambiguity “I once shot an elephant in my pajamas.” “Tonight’s program will discuss sex with Dr. Ruth Westheimer.” “We will not sell gasoline to anyone in a glass container.” “This mixing bowl is designed to please any cook with a round bottom for efficient beating.” If a single sentence can have two meanings, then we cannot attribute the meaning to just the choice of words and their ordering; there must be a third factor: its structure.

Structural ambiguity Ambiguity resulting from the structure of the phrase or sentence e.g. [shot [an elephant] [in my pajamas]] [shot [an elephant in my pajamas]] e.g. [discuss [sex with Dr. Ruth Westheimer]] [discuss [sex] [with Dr. Ruth Westheimer]]

Structural ambiguity discuss [sex with Dr. Ruth] discuss [sex] [with Dr. Ruth] VP VP V NP V NP PP discuss N PP discuss sex P NP sex P NP with Dr. Ruth with Dr. Ruth

Tests for Constituent structure Substitution Movement Deletion Coordination

Substitution: NP Substitute for NPs with pronouns (he, she, it, they, etc.) e.g., [Laura] will buy [the new Battlestar Galactica DVD] tomorrow. Rita will buy it Wednesday. She will buy ‘V’ for Vendetta Friday. NP[the new BSG DVD] NP[Laura]

Substitution: VP Substitute for VPs with do/done so e.g., Laura has eaten lots of Halloween candy. Matt has done so too. Sandy will do so if we don’t stop her. AUX (has, will, etc.) is outside the VP constituent. S => NP Aux VP

Substitution test “The cow attacked the farmer with the axe.” The cow attacked him. NP: [the farmer with the axe] The cow attacked him with it. him: NP[the farmer] it: NP[the axe]

Movement Constituents can move to positions in the sentence other than where they would normally go Obligatory: Question formation Optional: Topicalization

Word Order English is an SVO language: Subject – Verb – Object Harry rides brooms. Ron makes jokes. Trevor eats flies.

Obligatory Movement Question formation: “Laura will drive her car on the weekend.” What will Laura drive (her car) on the weekend? When will Laura drive her car (on the weekend)?

Optional Movement Topicalization: optional movement used to emphasize something I don’t like peas, but peanuts I like _____. They didn’t think he could win the election, but win the election he did __________. O - S - V

Movement test “The cow attacked the farmer with the axe.” Who did the cow attack _______________? Who did the cow attack__________ with the axe? the farmer with the axe the farmer

Deletion A constituent can be deleted from a phrase when there is an identical constituent in the discourse to supply its meaning

Deletion test “The cow attacked the farmer with the axe.” The cow is attacking the farmer with the axe. The horse is ______, too.

Conjunctions Words and phrases of the same category can be combined using conjunctions (e.g., and, but, or) NP  NP conj NP VP  VP conj VP S  S conj S Cats and dogs are furry. He will run and jump. You can run but you can’t hide.

Conjoined phrases NP NP  NP Conj NP NP Conj NP NP  Det N Det N Det N the cat and the dog

Conjoined sentences I bought a book, but I returned it. S S  S conj S S conj S S  NP VP NP VP but NP VP I V NP I V NP bought a book returned it

Ungrammatical coordination Different categories cannot be conjoined Julia wrote a memo. Julia wrote to the dean. *Julia wrote [a memo] and [to the dean]. NP PP

Coordination test Laura loves linguistics. Laura teaches enthusiastically. Laura loves linguistics and teaches enthusiastically. Conclusion: [loves linguistics] and [teaches enthusiastically] are the same kind of constituent: VP

Coordination test Reveals information about whether a group of words is a constituent what kind of constituent it is