NE4016 Academic Writing 2 Íde O’Sullivan, Lawrence Cleary Regional Writing Centre

Regional Writing Centre2 Literature review: Key skills Choose a research topic Design and develop a research question/problem (scope) Undertake literature searching and retrieval Analyse, synthesis and evaluate data Present a literature critique Develop good writing and reporting skills

Regional Writing Centre3 Literature searching and retrieval Select the review topic Decide on selection and exclusion criteria Search suitable electronic databases using keyword searcheselectronic databases Identify appropriate literature to be included in the review Analyse and synthesise the literature Engage in a critical review of the literature

Regional Writing Centre4 Reviewing and evaluating the literature Key information in the review –Title –Author/Year –Purpose –Methodology –Findings –Outcomes –Recommendations Key thoughts and comments –Strengths, weaknesses

Writing the Review

Regional Writing Centre6 Writing a ‘page 98 paper’ My research question is … Researchers who have looked at this subject are … They argue that … Debate centres on the issue of … There is work to be done on … My research is closest to that of X in that … My contribution will be … (Murray 2006:104)

Regional Writing Centre7 Writing the review Introduction Main body of text Conclusion References

Regional Writing Centre8 The introduction In academic writing, an introduction, or opening, has four purposes: To introduce the topic of the essay/report To indicate the context of the conversation through background information To give some indication of the overall plan of the essay/report To catch the reader’s attention, usually by convincing the reader of its relevance.

Regional Writing Centre9 What should I put into the introduction? Identify the domain and the topic State the problem - claim, hypothesis, or question - to be investigated Gives the problem context and significance within the research community State the objectives of the review and outline the plan Give an overview of the literature sources and key search terms used in the review May delineate the scope of the research

Regional Writing Centre10 The main text Examining the theoretical literature and the methodological literature underpinning the selected study Examining the theoretical literature and then the empirical literature in discrete sections Dividing the literature into content themes Examining the literature chronologically (Carnwell and Daly 2001:60-62)

Regional Writing Centre11 The conclusion Concise summary of the findings Identify the gaps in the literature Outline and justify the purpose of your proposed study

Regional Writing Centre12 The literature review Reveal the current state of knowledge/state of the art on a selected topic Make sure that the literature reviewed is relevant (do not “write down all you know about…”) A description of a series of studies is insufficient; you must engage in a critical review of the literature. Include not only a review of the literature; the methodologies employed should also be critically reviewed.

Regional Writing Centre13 ‘Writing in layers’ (Murray 2006: ) Outline the structure: write your chapter or section heading for the Literature Review. Write a sentence or two on the contents of the chapter and each section. List out sub-headings for each section. Write an introductory paragraph for each section. At the top of each section, write the word count requirement, draft number and date.

Regional Writing Centre14 Flow Logical method of development Effective transition signals Good signposting Consistent point of view Conciseness (careful word choice) Clarity of expression Paragraph structure –Unity –Coherence

Regional Writing Centre15 Paragraph structure What is a paragraph? –Series of sentences –Coherent (introduction, middle, end) –Common theme Every sentence in a paragraph develops one topic or idea. Paragraphs signal the logically organised progression of ideas. The flow of information should be organised around themes and comments. The main idea in one paragraph should flow logically into the next. Shifts in the argument or changes in direction should be accurately signalled using appropriate adverbials, conjunctions, and prepositions.

Regional Writing Centre16 Paragraph structure Just as an essay is guided by a thesis statement, a paragraph is organised around its topic sentence. A topic sentence informs the reader of the topic to be discussed. A topic sentence contains controlling ideas which limit the scope of the discussion to ideas that are manageable in a paragraph.

Regional Writing Centre17 Paragraph structure: Supporting sentences The sentences that follow expand upon the topic, using controlling ideas to limit the discussion. The main idea is supported by –Evidence in the form of facts, statistics, theoretical probabilities, reputable, educated opinions, –Illustrations in the form of examples and extended examples, and –Argumentation based on the evidence presented. –Qualifying statements indicate the limitations of the support or argument.

Regional Writing Centre18 Paragraph structure: Concluding sentences Not every paragraph needs a concluding sentence. Concluding sentences can either comment on the information in the text, or They can paraphrase the topic sentence.

Regional Writing Centre19 Paragraph structure: Unity Paragraphs should be unified. ‘Unity means that only one main idea is discussed in a paragraph. The main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting sentence develops that idea’ (Oshima and Hogue 1999:18).

Regional Writing Centre20 Paragraph structure: Coherence Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because –your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order –your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transition signals –your pronoun references clearly point to the intended antecedent and is consistent –you have repeated or substituted key nouns. (Oshima and Hogue 2006:.22)

Regional Writing Centre21 Example: (Meei-Fang et al. 2007:471) People with dementia are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition: they have a decreased ability to understand directions and to express their needs verbally, are easily distracted from eating, prone to become agitated, and may use utensils incorrectly. Inability to feed oneself (eating dependency) is a major risk factor for malnutrition among older people living in long-term care settings (Abbasi & Rudman 1994, Durnbaugh et al. 1996). When people with dementia can no longer take food voluntarily, assistance is required although, as the disease progresses, even taking food with assistance can become difficult and, in some instances, tube-feeding may be required to supply nutrition. This form of feeding can, however, cause distress and anxiety, not only for the person being fed, but also for caregivers (Akerlund & Norberg 1985, Burgener & Shimer 1993).

Regional Writing Centre22 Paragraph structure: Transition signals Transition signals do exactly what it says on the tin: they ‘signal’. They can signal relationships between sentences, just as they can signal relationships between paragraphs. Example: ‘Finally, there have been numerous women altogether outside the profession, who were reformers dedicated to creating alternatives’ (Gillet 2005). The signal indicates the final point in a series of points.

Regional Writing Centre23 Paragraph structure: Transition signals To introduce an additional idea To introduce an opposite idea or contrast To introduce a choice or alternative To introduce an example To introduce an explanation To list To introduce a conclusion/summary To introduce a result

Regional Writing Centre24 Paragraph structure Dos and Don’ts Do not use pronouns to refer to an antecedent in the previous paragraph. Lengthy paragraphs indicate a lack of structure. Short paragraphs indicate a lack of detail or evidence to support the argument. Do not end a paragraph with a quotation. Use a variety of sentence patterns and lengths to give your paragraph a lively rhythm. Signpost your paragraph organisation.

Regional Writing Centre25 Sentence structure Vary your rhythm by using a variety of sentence types and patterns. Use a combination of –Simple sentences Compound sentences Complex sentences Compound-Complex sentences Do not limit yourself to simple sentences or linking sentences using “and”/”but”.

Strategies to Boost Writing Skills

Regional Writing Centre27 Writing to prompts Strategies that might help boost my academic writing skills……… Keep writing non-stop for 5 minutes. Write in sentences. Do not edit or censor your writing. Discuss what you have written in pairs.

Regional Writing Centre28 Getting started Create time and space for writing Freewriting Writing to prompts –“What writing have you done for this assignment, what writing would you like to do……” –“The aim of this assignment…” Experiment with different types of writing

Regional Writing Centre29 Keep writing Where and when do you write? Why are you not writing? –“I don’t feel ready to write.” –Writers’ block Getting unstuck –Writing to prompts/freewriting (write anything) –Set writing goals –Write regularly –Integrate writing into your thinking –Break it down into a manageable process

Regional Writing Centre30 Keep writing Be patient Be creative Taking pleasure in writing Be proud of your writing Get stuck in

Regional Writing Centre31 Cracking the codes Analysing the genre/text and modelling Generate a list of –The most important features of academic writing –Criteria to make your writing-strategies more effective –The important conventions in your discipline –What is/is not acceptable in your discipline Student handbooks and guides for written submissions

Regional Writing Centre32 Writing time Dealing with issues of time Setting goals “Binge” and “snack” writing (Murray 2005) Do I need a big block of time to write productively? “Short bursts of productive writing” (Murray and Moore 2006:17) Outlining (Murray 2005)

Regional Writing Centre33 Dialogue as a social strategy Peer-review Generative writing The “writing sandwich” (Murray 2005:85): writing, talking, writing Writing “buddies” (Murray and Moore 2006:102) –Engaging in critiques of one another’s work allows you to become effective critics of your own work.

Regional Writing Centre34 Motivation: It is not too late Take stock of where you are now Outline your research Make plans based on the time that is left Organise your time accordingly Get writing Keep writing Allow time for revision and to put it all together Let family and friends know Be selfish with your time

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Revision, Editing and Proofreading

Regional Writing Centre37 Revising (Global) Global issues (organisation and structure): –Does the text achieve your writing goals as established in your evaluation of the rhetorical situation (writing context) and by your thesis? –Is there deviation, wander and digression? –Does each paragraph treat in a controlled manner an identifiable idea, and does that idea follow logically the ideas expressed in previous paragraphs and do they allow readers to predict the ideas expressed in the paragraphs that follow?

Regional Writing Centre38 Revising (Global) “If the process of writing has changed your views, consider rethinking the thesis and reworking the paper” (Ebest et al. 2004:14). How does the introduction fit in with the body of the paper? Did you address what you said you would address? Did you fulfil your promises? Does your conclusion take into account the discoveries made during your research and writing processes. Strategy: Outline your paper, now that you have finished it.

Regional Writing Centre39 Revising (Local) Local issues (editing and proofreading): –Look at logical and grammatical relations as expressed within paragraph boundaries. –Is the relationship between pronouns and noun substitutes and the things they represent clear? –Verbs express relationships of time and indicate person, number and mood. Are those relationships consistent and appropriate?

Regional Writing Centre40 Revising (Local) Is information logically arranged, and is the organisation of your text clear? Does each paragraph have a topic sentence and is the paragraph cogent, coherent and unified? Do your sentences express complete ideas, and do you vary your structures? Are they grammatical? What about the mechanics?

Regional Writing Centre41 Checklists and Feedback Before flying, pilots go through a methodical check of their plane. Do you have a checklist for your assignments before you hand them in?a checklist How can you anticipate problems that you are unable to see? Get a peer to help. –Ask for the feedback that you need and that is appropriate to the context.

Regional Writing Centre42 Revising (Peer review) For example, this is an argumentative paper: “Were you convinced by my argument? Why? Or why not?” I know I write poor introductions: “Could you identify my thesis?” Or “...could you tell me how the introduction attempts to grab the reader’s interest?” I know that my sentences tend to be long and difficult to understand: “Could you read my paper aloud so that I can listen to it and mark where you are having difficulties in reading?”

Regional Writing Centre43 Spelling Make sure to set the language to BrE or AmE but stick to one (-ise/-ize) Standard forms Double letters Don’t rely on spell check – it doesn’t catch everything - forfoe - formfrom - quietquite - practicepractise - affecteffect

Regional Writing Centre44 Grammar Sentence structure Complete sentences Agreement Tense Grammar check is not always correct - passive sentences - defining and non-defining clauses The woman who lives in apartment No. 34 has been arrested. Mrs. Jackson, who is very intelligent, lives on the corner.

Regional Writing Centre45 Punctuation Commas, semi-colons, full stops Apostrophe its Vs it’s 1920s Possessives The dog’s bone The dogs’ bone The horses’ mouths Seamus’ car Capitalisation

Regional Writing Centre46 Tips for editing Set it aside for a few days and come back with a fresh eye Get someone else to proofread it as well as you Use the print preview button to check layout before you print Always proofread on hardcopy Hold paper below the line you are proofreading Use the find button to make changes Be consistent!! Editing a reference list is separate

Regional Writing Centre47 Editing a reference list Check that in-text dates and page numbers match reference list Only enter names in reference list that you have mentioned in your text – it’s not a bibliography Make sure that if a name is mentioned in the document that is in included in the reference list Do a separate edit of your reference list, checking everything matches, everything is included and it is consistent

Regional Writing Centre48 Common errors Consistency of layout Spelling, punctuation and grammar Syntax Correct font and spacing Word or letter substitution Transposition of letters Omission of a line or lines, which does not outwardly affect the meaning Check finished work with original Dates, proper names and place names, and figures Complete labelling of diagrams, tables, graphs, etc

Regional Writing Centre49 Resources Shannon Consortium Regional Writing Centre, UL Using English for Academic Purposes The Writer’s Garden cyberlyber.com/writermain.htmhttp://www. cyberlyber.com/writermain.htm The OWL at Purdue The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill /wcweb/handouts/index.html /wcweb/handouts/index.html

Regional Writing Centre50 Reference list Carnwell, R and Daly, W. (2001) ‘Strategies for the construction of a critical review of the literature’, Nurse Education in Practice, 1: Moore, S. and Murphy, M. (2005) How to be a Student: 100 Great Ideas and Practical Hints for Students Everywhere. Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. (2005) Writing for Academic Journals. UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. (2006) How to Write a Thesis. UK: Open University Press. Murray, R. and Moore, S. (2006) The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (2006) Writing Academic English, 4th edition. New York: Pearson Education.