The general theory of relativity is our most accurate description of gravitation Published by Einstein in 1915, this is a theory of gravity A massive object causes space to curve and time to slow down These effects manifest themselves as a gravitational force These distortions of space and time are most noticeable in the vicinity of large masses or compact objects

The general theory of relativity also predicts the existence of gravitational waves, which are ripples in the overall geometry of space and time produced by moving masses Gravitational waves have been detected indirectly, and specialized antennas are under construction to make direct measurement of the gravitational waves from cosmic cataclysms

If a stellar corpse has a mass greater than about 2 to 3 M , gravitational compression will overwhelm any and all forms of internal pressure The stellar corpse will collapse to such a high density that its escape speed exceeds the speed of light

Supermassive black holes exist at the centers of most galaxies These are detected by observing the motions of material around the black hole

Falling into a black hole is an infinite voyage

●Could a black hole somehow be connected to another part of spacetime, or even some other universe? ●General relativity predicts that such connections, called wormholes, can exist for rotating black holes

Black holes evaporate

Black Holes have no Hair Properties of a black hole: - Mass - Spin (angular momentum) - Charge (tends to be zero)

Black Holes can have impact on their environments

Do Black Holes Really Exist? Good Candidate: Cygnus X-1 - Binary system: 30 M Sun star with unseen companion. - Binary orbit => companion > 7 M Sun. - X-rays => million degree gas falling into black hole.

Vela satellite An early gamma ray-burst

A Gamma Ray Burst Sampler

Great debate:

GRBM: keV WFC: 2-30 keV NFI: 2-10 keV Bepposax Satellite

X-Ray Afterglow from GRB t=6.5 hrst=12.5 hrst=54 hrs

Optical Afterglow from GRB Host HST Image Keck Images 2 days2 months

Optical Afterglow from GRB b Swift Image Light Curve Naked-eye visible for ~30 sec. Distance = 7.5 billion ly

Uh-oh

GRB Host Galaxies Bloom et al. 2002

Radio Light Curves from long GRBs

GRB First VLBI detection of a GRB Afterglow absolute position to < 1 mas Size < 10^19 cm (3 lt years) Distance > lt years Taylor et al 1997

R ~ (E/n)^1/8 Relativistic Expansion v ~ 0.96c E ~ 10^53 ergs (isotropic equivalent) Taylor et al 2004 Pihlstrom et al 2007 GRB Expansion

The Evidence (long GRBs) ● Peak toward low end of gamma-ray, complex gamma-ray light curves ● Often have bright afterglows ● Evidence for a relativistic explosion ● Energy required of ~ ergs (isotropic) ● Associated with regions of star formation in distant galaxies (out to edge of observable universe) ● Sometimes obscured by dust ● Plus …

Example Supernova: 1998bw

Long GRBs clearly connected to Supernovae Hjorth et al 2003

1. White Dwarf If initial star mass < 8 M Sun or so 2. Neutron Star If initial mass > 8 M Sun and < 25 M Sun 3. Black Hole If initial mass > 25 M Sun Final States of a Star No Event + PN Supernova + ejecta GRB + Supernova + ejecta

Clicker Question: What is the remnant left over from a GRB? A: a white dwarf + expanding shell B: a neutron star + expanding shell C: a black hole + expanding shell D: no remnant, just the expanding shell

Clicker Question: Where do most GRBs occur: A: in globular clusters B: in star forming regions C: in old open clusters D: in the Oort cloud

Clicker Question: What was the subject of the great debate about GRBs that went on for ~30 years? A: If they were produced by Supernovae or colliding stars. B: If they were galactic or extragalactic in origin. C: If they were of terrestrial or extraterrestrial in origin? D: If a nearby GRB killed off the dinosaurs.

Coalescence versus Collapse NS-NS binaryMassive star