Work Motivation Chapter 12

Work Motivation: Overview Five Critical Concepts in Motivation Work Motivation Theories Overview and Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories The Application of Motivational Strategies

Work Motivation: Definition Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration 3 Dimensions Direction Intensity Persistence

Work Motivation: 5 Concepts Behavior: Action from which we infer motivation Performance: Evaluation of behavior Ability: Determinant of behavior Situational Constraints: Determinant of behavior Motivation: Determinant of behavior Performance as a Function of BEHAVIOR SITUATIONAL CONSTRAINTS x - = ABILITY MOTIVATION

Overview of Work Motivation Theories Need theories Cognitive theories Job design theories Behavioral theories

Work Motivation Theories: Need Hierarchy Theory Based on sequential ordering of human needs that individuals seek to fulfill in serial progression. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Alderfer’s ERG Theory McClelland’s Need for Achievement Theory

Work Motivation Theories: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-Actualization (Self-fulfillment) Esteem (Recognition from others) Social (Company and acceptance of others) Safety (Security & shelter) Physiological (Air, food, water, etc.)

Work Motivation Theories: Alderfer’s ERG Theory Self-Actualization (Self-fulfillment) Growth Esteem (Recognition from others) Social (Company and acceptance of others) Relatedness Existence Safety (Security & shelter) Physiological (Air, food, water, etc.)

Work Motivation Theories: McClelland’s Need for Achievement Theory People with a high need for achievement (high n’Ach) will put more effort into work than people without this need (low n’Ach) High n’Achs tend to desire high levels of achievement whereas low n’Achs tend to only avoid failure Low n’Achs can be trained to develop a need for achievement

Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory Equity Theory: Motivation theory based on the social comparison process of examining the ratio of inputs and outcomes between oneself and a comparison other. Person compares themselves with Other Person perceived what they input into job Person perceives what they benefit from job Person compares input-benefit ratio of him/herself to Other Adams (1965)

Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory Equity occurs when each person has equal ratios (e.g., 50:50) other’s-outcomes other’s-inputs self-outcomes self-inputs vs Underpayment equity: The sense of unfairness derived from the perception that the ratio of one’s own inputs and outcomes is lower than the ratio of a comparison other. Overpayment equity: The sense of unfairness derived from the perception that the ratio of one's own inputs and outcomes is greater that the ration of comparison other.

Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory You: 50 Other: 50  Fair/Equitable 50 50 You: 50 Other: 75  Underpayment 50 50 You: 75 Other: 50  Overpayment 50 50

Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory Equity theory posits that people who perceive an inequity will try to reduce inequity Behavior Change inputs Change outcomes Get other to change inputs or outcomes Quit job Cognitive Distort own inputs or outcomes Distort Other’s inputs or outcomes Change comparison Other

Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory Equity Theory Underpayment Inequity Predictions Hourly Wages Workers will decrease effort Decreases in product quality and quantity Piece Rate Wages To compensate for underpayment, workers would produce more, but much lower quality

Work Motivation Theories: Equity Theory Equity Theory Overpayment Inequity Predictions Hourly Wages Workers should expend more effort (i.e., increase inputs) Piece Rate Wages Workers should expend more effort to produce fewer, but more high quality products

Work Motivation Theories: General Expectancy Theories Vroom’s VIE theory – effort (force) is determined by: Perceived effort-performance expectancies Perceptions that performance will lead to certain outcomes (instrumentalities) Valence of outcomes effort performance outcome expectancy instrumentality

Work Motivation Theories: Expectancy Theory Motivation is derived from relationships among: Valence value of outcomes Instrumentality performance-reward contingencies Expectancy effort-performance contingencies Force = Expectancy * Σ (Valences * Instrumentalities)

Work Motivation Theories: Expectancy Theory praise from parents graduate school good job good grades studying expectancies instrumentalities lack of social life valences less friends no fun effort performance outcome

Work Motivation Theories: Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory People set goals for themselves and they are motivated to work toward these goals because achieving them is rewarding Goals affect task performance by directing attention and action, mobilizing energy expenditure or effort, prolonging effort overtime (persistence) and motivating the individual to develop relevant strategies for goal attainment

Work Motivation Theories: Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory Performance is best when: Goals are specific Goals are challenging Workers have necessary ability Rewards are clearly understood and provided Management supports goal attainment Provides necessary time & resources Goals are internalized and accepted by employees Feedback is provided

Work Motivation Theories: Self-Regulation Theories Major components Goals Self-monitoring or self-evaluation Role of feedback Self-efficacy Goal revision Empirical tests of the theory Evaluation of the theory

Work Motivation Theories: Job-based Theories Source of motivation is primarily in the content of the jobs employees perform Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (also referred to as Motivation-Hygiene Theory) Job Characteristics Theory

Work Motivation Theories: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Meeting lower-level needs will prevent workers from becoming dissatisfied; they do not influence work motivation hygiene factors e.g., pay, fringe benefits, relations with coworkers, physical working conditions Only conditions that allow people to fill upper-level needs for esteem and self-actualization will increase work motivation Motivator factors e.g., level of challenge and discretion, intrinsic interest, opportunities to be creative

Critical Psychological states Personal and work outcomes Job Characteristics Theory Core job dimensions Critical Psychological states Personal and work outcomes Task identity Experienced meaningfulness Satisfaction Motivation Quality of Work Low turnover and absenteeism Skill variety Task significance Experienced responsibility Autonomy Knowledge of results Feedback Growth need strength

Job Characteristics Theory task identity skill variety task significance S autonomy X feedback X = motivation 3

Work Motivation Theories: Reinforcement Theory Based on principles of behaviorism Reinforcement a stimulus that increases the probability of any given behavior Punishment consequences that make a behavior less likely

Work Motivation Theories: Reinforcement Theory Schedules of reinforcement continuous intermittent fixed interval variable interval fixed ratio variable ratio

Overview and Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories Distal construct theories: Exert indirect effects on behavior Proximal construct theories: Begin with the individual’s goals and characteristics of the workplace that directly influence behavior. Genetic bases of motivation

Overview and Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories Genetics/Heredity Will to achieve from Big 5 Personality Theory Needs/Personality/Interests Need hierarchy theory Equity theory Motives Expectancy theory Cognitive choice Goal-setting theory Goals Feedback/ Expectation discrepancy Self-regulation theory Job characteristic theory Core job attributes Distal constructs Proximal Constructs

Seven Practices to Raise Motivation Ensure that workers motives and values are appropriate for the jobs on which they are placed Make jobs attractive and consistent with workers’ motives and values. Define work goals that are clear, challenging, attractive, and attainable.

Seven Practices to Raise Motivation Provide workers with the personnel and material resources that facilitate their effectiveness. Create supportive social environments. 6. Reinforce performance. 7. Harmonize all these elements into a consistent socio-technical system.

Application of Motivational Strategies There is no “best” theory. It may be necessary to match motivation strategies with varying organizational context.