Thomas Hobbes ( ) l Fear of others in the state of nature (apart from society) prompts people to form governments through a social contract l State power/authority (the sovereign) is based on the choice of subjects that there be one will. Since the sovereign determines what is right, rebellion against the sovereign is unjustified l As brutal as a State may be, it is always better than having no State or government
l We have God-given rights to our lives, liberty, property (e.g., bodies) l We establish governments to clarify & protect our natural rights. State authority is thus based on the consent of the people, who can rebel against the State if it fails to respect our rights l Tacit consent is given by anyone who lives in a country and is protected by its laws John Locke ( )
l I am obligated to obey the law only if it is self-imposed. Externally-imposed laws are based on force and are not morally legitimate l The social contract is our tacit agreement to abide by the general will, which is what we all will for ourselves as members of a community l Objection: consent is often uninformed and unavoidable (Hume) Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( )
Contemporary Liberalism: John Rawls: Justice as Fairness l All citizens should share in a society’s wealth and be given equal economic opportunities l In a just society, rational individuals under a veil of ignorance about their original position in the society should endorse a theory that: l gives everyone as much liberty as possible l allows for the unequal distribution of wealth only when the existence of such inequalities benefits everyone and is accessible to everyone
l Communitarianism: the State’s authority does not depend on the consent of individuals; rather, individuals depend on the State for their fulfillment and identity (Aristotle, Hegel) l Feminism: because women typically are expected to focus on private (family) matters, they are excluded from full participation in the social contract Critiques of Social Contract Theories Susan Okin
l Retributive justice: punishment/reward given to someone for something he/she has done l Distributive justice: the distribution of goods, services, or responsibilities based on: l productivity and merit (Plato) l social utility, public interest (J. S. Mill) l need and ability (socialism: Marx) l equal opportunity (welfare liberalism: Rawls) l ownership of property, entitlement, free choices (classical liberalism: Nozick) Types of Justice
l Human beings are naturally inclined to work and be sociable. Capitalism alienates us from the products of our labor and thus alienates us from ourselves and others l Only communal ownership of property can counteract social alienation Karl Marx ( )
l Retributive justice: punishment/reward given to someone for something he/she has done l Distributive justice: the distribution of goods, services, or responsibilities based on: l productivity and merit (Plato) l social utility, public interest (J. S. Mill) l need and ability (socialism: Marx) l equal opportunity (welfare liberalism: Rawls) l ownership of property, entitlement, free choices (classical liberalism: Nozick) Types of Justice
l We are entitled to use our property as we see fit. The State’s legitimate power is limited to preventing harm and protecting property rights l Taxation for anything other than protection (e.g, to impose a pattern to redistribute wealth) is unjust because it ignores how goods are acquired fairly through trade, labor, gifts, etc. Minimal State (Entitlement) Theory: Robert Nozick