I. The Columbian Exchange

What made the process of European expansion & colonization so different in the Americas? Changes: --disappearance of whole peoples --dependence on subjugated labor --forced conversion to Catholicism --extent of exchange of plants & animals --extent to which ‘worlds’ were brought together

A. ‘The Columbian Exchange’: --refers to the migration of people & movement of plants, animals, & diseases across the Atlantic Diseases: demographic impact devastating due to isolation of Amerindians

1. Diseases: ‘Old’ to ‘New’ world: - Africans brought malaria - Europeans brought smallpox, measles, influenza ‘New’ to ‘Old’ world: - syphilis (STD…) *Yellow fever killed many Europeans in ‘New’ world

2. Plants: ‘Old’ to ‘New’ world: European: wheat, vegetables, grapes, olives African: bananas, coconuts, sugar cane, coffee ‘New’ to ‘Old’ world: maize, potatoes, tobacco, cocoa (Euro. impact) manioc, cocoa, peanuts, tobacco (African impact)

3. Animals: ‘Old’ to ‘New’ world: cattle (Argentina, Texas, Mexico), sheep (Navajo), pigs horses (new tool for hunting) rats & rabbits

II. Spanish America & Brazil Spanish colonial society based on hierarchical system of the Viceroyalty: - classes of society - all Catholic - patriarchal families 2. Council of the Indies (1524): supervised all Spanish colonies: - Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535): Caribbean, Mexico, C. America, S.W. U.S., Mississippi, Florida - Viceroyalty of Peru (1540’s): S. American colonies colonial economies tightly controlled (export of gold/silver)

Vice-Royalties in Latin America, 1780

A. State & Church justified American conquest through Christianity massive missionary work some clergy resorted to torture, execution, & destruction of native manuscripts many Amerindians formed syncretic religious beliefs 5. Bartolomé de Las Casas: pushed for outlawing Amerindian enslavement

B. Colonial Economies 1. sugar plantations in Brazil 2. silver mines of Peru and Mexico Potosí (Bolivia) mine discovered 1545 indigenous labor use of wood for fuel denuded forests mercury used in silver extraction…

Silver Mines of Potosí (Bolivia)

Silver Refinery at Potosí c. 1700

C. The Encomienda System 1. Encomienda used to ensure work was done & taxes paid 2. Encomenderos (elites) were granted an amount of natives to “hispanicize” based ‘loosely’ on Incan mita system

Impact on Amerindians: - 1/7th of male labor removed from agrarian economy for work in mines - many died in forced labor - many fled - exacerbated epidemics of 16th c.

D. Brazil initially, used ‘prisoner’ labor Amerindian men captured to work sugar plantations (disease, resistance, fled, suicide) sugar industry outpaced labor supply… importation of African slaves

Slaves cutting Sugar Cane, Brazil

E. The Social Hierarchy 1. Peninsulares (Iberian) at top 2. Criollos (creoles): born in the Americas of Iberian parents ‘Castas’: 3. Iberian-Amerindian: mestizo Iberian-African: mulatto African-Amerindian slaves

The Colonial Class System Peninsulares Creoles Mulattos Mestizos Native Indians Black Slaves

“Chino” “Mestizo” couple “Sambo” “Morisca”

Saint Martín de Porres (1579-1639) Hardly typical but still representative of the growing mulatto class: the illegitimate son of a Spanish noble and his black ‘servant’, he was ultimately recognized by his father. In terms of religion, he is interesting. As a brother of the Dominican order in Peru, he became known for his ‘visions’ and ability to ‘heal’.

III. English & French Colonies

A. North American Colonies labor biggest concern initially solved with indentured labor (white Europeans) 3. indentured servants: 7 year labor contracts for passage, land, tools, clothes French colonists looking for gold British seeking “N.W. passage” to Indies

B. New France voyages of Jacques Cartier (1524-42) hopes of mineral wealth (‘fools gold’) first settlement: St. Lawrence River in Quebec (1608) ‘wealth’ found in Amerindian’s furs

French-Native American Conflict access to trade pushed wars with Amerindian tribes France allied with tribes against Iroquois Confederacy supplied arms, armor, & men

Fur Trade in New France French in Canada depended on fur trade. Traders depended on participation of Amerindian trappers and traders, knowledge of canoe building, and assistance with transport along difficult river systems and over harsh terrain.

French in Louisiana French expanded west & south: Louisiana (1699) based on fur trade (deer) 3. Seven Years’ War or French-Indian War (1756-63): fought mostly in N. America over British expansion; considered 1st “world” war 4. England took Quebec (1759) 5. Treaty of Paris gave Canada & Florida to the English & Louisiana to Spain

Geography of the Seven Years’ War

Before and After the Seven Years War Between France and Britain

B. British in North America Early experiments: Sir Humphrey Gilbert (1580s): Newfoundland Sir Walter Raleigh (1585): N. Carolina Roanoke resettled 1587: no one survived English also ‘colonized’ Ireland (1566)

British Settlers Arrive in North America

Jamestown Colony: London investors organized ‘The Virginia Company’: sent settlers to Jamestown 1606, 1609 80% died within 15 years (disease & Amerindian attacks) 1624 company dissolved settlers dispersed along Chesapeake Bay: furs, timber, tobacco use of white indentured servants for labor

‘The South’ settlers from Virginia moved into n. Carolina: - economy based on tobacco & timber - S. Carolina settled by British planters from the Caribbean (1670) - new capital Charlestown attracted immigrants - economy tied to West Indies

C. The Dutch in ‘New Netherland’ 1. Dutch West India Company bought Manhattan Isle from Amerindians & established a colony (1624) Established alliances with Iroquois (enemies of French in Canada) to access fur trade 1664 surrendered to British & taken over by Duke of York: New Netherlands became New York New York economy: Atlantic shipping attracted Germans, Dutch, Swedish settlers

D. The British in New England 1. 1600-1630 ‘New England’ settled by: Pilgrims at Plymouth; strict religious community & absorbed into Massachusetts Bay Colony (1691) Puritans founded joint stock company & migrants arrived with whole families more urban (Boston), more “American”, & economy based on commercial shipping & financial services

E. Pennsylvania William Penn granted colony as refuge for Quakers (1682) Successful economy based on trade Philadelphia attracted German immigrants & freed & slave blacks