Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Chapter 1 Introduction to Social Psychology This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; Any rental, lease, or lending of the program
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon How can you tell if another person is attracted to you?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon In most mammalian species, a female raises offspring with no help from the male. Why are homo sapiens one of the rare exceptions?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Space Blaster Doomsday Version 2.5 Does playing violent video games increase aggressiveness?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Chapter Outline What is Social Psychology? Major Theoretical Perspectives Basic Principles Research Methods The Network of Knowledge What is Social Psychology? Major Theoretical Perspectives Basic Principles Research Methods The Network of Knowledge
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon What is Social Psychology? Social psychology – the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by other people
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Scientific Description and Explanation Social Psychology, like any science, involves: Description – careful and reliable observation Explanation – development of theories that connect and organize observations Social Psychology, like any science, involves: Description – careful and reliable observation Explanation – development of theories that connect and organize observations
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Scientific Description and Explanation Theories are scientific explanations that: Connect and organize existing observations Suggest fruitful paths for future research. Theories are scientific explanations that: Connect and organize existing observations Suggest fruitful paths for future research.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Sociocultural Evolutionary Social Learning Social Learning Social Cognitive Social Cognitive Click On Any Perspective Major Theoretical Perspectives
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Sociocultural Perspective Sociocultural perspective – a theoretical viewpoint that searches for the causes of social behavior in influences from larger social groups
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Sociocultural Perspective What drives social behavior? Forces in larger social groups such as: norms within cultural groups social class differences nationality/ethnicity fads What drives social behavior? Forces in larger social groups such as: norms within cultural groups social class differences nationality/ethnicity fads
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Sociocultural Perspective Sociocultural theorists might ask: What are the differences in social behavior across cultures? For example, women in some societies marry more than one man (polyandry). Sociocultural theorists might ask: What are the differences in social behavior across cultures? For example, women in some societies marry more than one man (polyandry).
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Sociocultural Perspective Social norm – a rule or expectation for appropriate social behavior Culture – the beliefs, customs, habits, and language shared by the people living in a particular time and place Social norm – a rule or expectation for appropriate social behavior Culture – the beliefs, customs, habits, and language shared by the people living in a particular time and place
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon esearch Culture, Choice, and Intrinsic Motivation American culture teaches children to cherish their own individual choice and independence. But Asian culture emphasizes more collective values – viewing the self as interdependent with family and social group. American culture teaches children to cherish their own individual choice and independence. But Asian culture emphasizes more collective values – viewing the self as interdependent with family and social group.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Culture, Choice, and Intrinsic Motivation In one study, researchers asked Anglo- American and Asian-American children to solve word puzzles that were either: Chosen by the child (Personal Choice), Chosen by the experimenter, or Chosen by the child’s mom. In one study, researchers asked Anglo- American and Asian-American children to solve word puzzles that were either: Chosen by the child (Personal Choice), Chosen by the experimenter, or Chosen by the child’s mom. esearch
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Personal Choice Iyengar & Lepper, 1999 Experimenter Choice mothers But Asian-American children were more motivated when their mothers had chosen the task Number of Word Puzzles Completed Anglo American Personal choice Personal choice enhanced motivation for Anglo-American children Asian American Mom Choice
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Evolutionary Perspective Evolutionary perspective – a theoretical viewpoint that searches for the causes of social behavior in the physical and psychological predispositions that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Evolutionary Perspective What drives social behavior? Genetic predispositions inherited from our ancestors that promoted their survival and reproduction, such as: The tendency to automatically recognize an angry face The tendency for mothers to feel protective of their children What drives social behavior? Genetic predispositions inherited from our ancestors that promoted their survival and reproduction, such as: The tendency to automatically recognize an angry face The tendency for mothers to feel protective of their children
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Evolutionary Perspective Natural selection – the process by which characteristics that help animals survive and reproduce are passed on to their offspring
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Natural Selection Animals with features suited to the demands of the environment will survive better than those with less well-adapted features. Those well-adapted animals will reproduce more successfully. Animals with features suited to the demands of the environment will survive better than those with less well-adapted features. Those well-adapted animals will reproduce more successfully.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Evolutionary Perspective Adaptation – a characteristic well designed for survival and reproduction in a particular environment
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Evolutionary Perspective Evolutionary theorists might ask: Are there similarities in social behavior across species? What are the similarities in social behavior across cultures and historical periods? Evolutionary theorists might ask: Are there similarities in social behavior across species? What are the similarities in social behavior across cultures and historical periods?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Age Preferences in Mates One example of a seemingly universal feature of social behavior is the difference between men and women in the preference for younger versus older partners. The next slide shows the minimum and maximum ages specified in singles ads in the U.S. One example of a seemingly universal feature of social behavior is the difference between men and women in the preference for younger versus older partners. The next slide shows the minimum and maximum ages specified in singles ads in the U.S. esearch
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon s s s30s40s50s60s s30s40s50s60s MALE'S AGE FEMALE'S AGE DIFFERENCE FROM TARGET'S AGE TARGET'S AGE Oldest preferred Youngest preferred Young men show no particular preference for younger partners, but older men prefer partners younger than themselves Women of all ages ask for men around their own age or older Kenrick & Keefe, Behavioral & Brain Sciences, (1992)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon s s s30s40s50s60s s30s40s50s60s MALE'S AGE FEMALE'S AGE DIFFERENCE FROM TARGET'S AGE TARGET'S AGE Oldest preferred Youngest preferred Marriages show a similar pattern Kenrick & Keefe, Behavioral & Brain Sciences, (1992)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon s 30s 40s >50 MALE'S AGE FEMALE'S AGE 10s20s30s40s >5010s DIFFERENCE FROM TARGET'S AGE TARGET'S AGE Oldest preferred Youngest preferred Phoenix Singles Ads The same pattern was found on a remote island in the Philippines throughout the century PORO –
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Social Learning Perspective Social learning perspective – a theoretical viewpoint that focuses on past learning experiences as determinants of a person’s social behaviors
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Social Learning Perspective What drives social behavior? Classically conditioned preferences For example, the feeling of fear at sight of person who hit you. Habits rewarded by other people For example, a boy who fights frequently after his father praised him for winning fight with neighborhood bully. What drives social behavior? Classically conditioned preferences For example, the feeling of fear at sight of person who hit you. Habits rewarded by other people For example, a boy who fights frequently after his father praised him for winning fight with neighborhood bully.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Social Learning Perspective What drives social behavior? Imitating the rewarded behavior of others For example, buying a gun after seeing a movie in which the hero wins true love after shooting half the people in his girlfriend’s neighborhood. What drives social behavior? Imitating the rewarded behavior of others For example, buying a gun after seeing a movie in which the hero wins true love after shooting half the people in his girlfriend’s neighborhood.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Learning Violence From Video Games One team of researchers hypothesized that violent video games may make aggression rewarding, by allowing a person to win points for killing and maiming human-like opponents (Anderson & Dill, 2000).
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Learning Violence From Video Games In an experiment, students first played a violent video game (Wulfenstein) or a nonviolent game (Tetrix). They then played a competitive game in which they could retaliate against real opponents by delivering unpleasantly loud blasts of noise. In an experiment, students first played a violent video game (Wulfenstein) or a nonviolent game (Tetrix). They then played a competitive game in which they could retaliate against real opponents by delivering unpleasantly loud blasts of noise.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Nonviolent Anderson & Dill, 2000 Violent Retaliatory Aggression (unpleasant noise level) Students who played a violent video game demonstrated significantly higher levels of retaliatory aggression Type of Videogame
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Social Cognitive Perspective Social cognitive perspective – a theoretical viewpoint that focuses on the mental processes involved in paying attention to, interpreting, and remembering social experiences
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Social Cognitive Perspective What drives social behavior? What we pay attention to How we interpret and judge social situations What we retrieve from memory People notice the behaviors of group members who are in a minority, and exaggerate the significance of the things they do. What drives social behavior? What we pay attention to How we interpret and judge social situations What we retrieve from memory People notice the behaviors of group members who are in a minority, and exaggerate the significance of the things they do.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon From Chump to Champ Research on social cognition suggests that our memory processes are often biased to make ourselves feel good. For example, Anne Wilson and Michael Ross (2001) asked students to: Describe yourself as you are now, or As you were several years ago. Research on social cognition suggests that our memory processes are often biased to make ourselves feel good. For example, Anne Wilson and Michael Ross (2001) asked students to: Describe yourself as you are now, or As you were several years ago.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Past Wilson & Ross, 2001 Now Frequency of Self- Descriptions Students described their present selves as champs, with more positive and fewer negative features than the chumps they used to be Self-Description 2 2 (+) (-)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Sociocultural Perspective Evolutionary What Drives Social Behavior? Social Learning Social Cognitive
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Forces in larger social groups such as: norms, fads, social class, ethnic identity, Sociocultural Perspective Evolutionary What Drives Social Behavior? Social Learning Social Cognitive
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Genetic predispositions that promoted our ancestors’ survival and reproduction, such as: the bond between parent and child Sociocultural Perspective Evolutionary What Drives Social Behavior? Social Learning Social Cognitive
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Classically conditioned preferences Habits rewarded by others; Imitation of behavior we have seen rewarded in others Sociocultural Perspective Evolutionary What Drives Social Behavior? Social Learning Social Cognitive
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon What we pay attention to; How we interpret and judge social situations; What we retrieve from memory Sociocultural Perspective Evolutionary What Drives Social Behavior? Social Learning Social Cognitive
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Basic Principles of Social Behavior Social behavior is goal-oriented. Social behavior represents a continual interaction between the person and the situation. Social behavior is goal-oriented. Social behavior represents a continual interaction between the person and the situation.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Social Behavior is Goal-Oriented At the surface level, we have many day-to-day goals. Go shopping Study for a test Get a date for Saturday night Etc. At the surface level, we have many day-to-day goals. Go shopping Study for a test Get a date for Saturday night Etc.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon To establish social ties To understand ourselves and others To gain and maintain status To defend ourselves and those we value To attract and retain mates Social Behavior is Goal-Oriented At the broadest level, we can categorize social goals into fundamental motives
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon The Interaction Between the Person and the Situation By person, psychologists mean the features or characteristics that individuals carry into social situations. By situation, psychologists mean the environmental events or circumstances outside the person. Persons and situations influence one another in a number of ways. By person, psychologists mean the features or characteristics that individuals carry into social situations. By situation, psychologists mean the environmental events or circumstances outside the person. Persons and situations influence one another in a number of ways.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon The Interaction Between the Person and the Situation 1. Different persons respond differently to the same situation. Example: You may see a party as a welcome chance to make new friends; another person may see the same party as an unbearable ordeal. 1. Different persons respond differently to the same situation. Example: You may see a party as a welcome chance to make new friends; another person may see the same party as an unbearable ordeal.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon The Interaction Between the Person and the Situation 2. Situations Choose the Person Not everyone gets to enter every situation they would like. Example: A tall person is more likely to be encouraged to play basketball; A short person to be a jockey. 2. Situations Choose the Person Not everyone gets to enter every situation they would like. Example: A tall person is more likely to be encouraged to play basketball; A short person to be a jockey.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon The Interaction Between the Person and the Situation 3. Persons Choose Their Situations Example: Violence-prone people choose to watch violent films; Less violent people do not. 3. Persons Choose Their Situations Example: Violence-prone people choose to watch violent films; Less violent people do not.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon The Interaction Between the Person and the Situation 4. Different Situations Prime Different Parts of the Person Example: Around your professor, you may show your intellectual side; around an old friend who did not go to college, you may suppress it. 4. Different Situations Prime Different Parts of the Person Example: Around your professor, you may show your intellectual side; around an old friend who did not go to college, you may suppress it.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon The Interaction Between the Person and the Situation 5. Persons Change The Situation Example: A highly extraverted person can change a boring party into the social event of the season. 5. Persons Change The Situation Example: A highly extraverted person can change a boring party into the social event of the season.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon The Interaction Between the Person and the Situation 6. Situations Change the Person Example: After four years of college, your intellectual inclinations will probably be more prominent. 6. Situations Change the Person Example: After four years of college, your intellectual inclinations will probably be more prominent.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon How Psychologists Study Social Behavior Hypothesis – a researcher’s prediction about what he or she will find
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon How Psychologists Study Social Behavior Descriptive methods involve attempts to measure or record behaviors, thoughts or feelings in their natural state. Experimental methods involve attempts to manipulate social processes by varying some aspect of the situation. Descriptive methods involve attempts to measure or record behaviors, thoughts or feelings in their natural state. Experimental methods involve attempts to manipulate social processes by varying some aspect of the situation.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Naturalistic Observation Case Studies ArchivesArchives SurveysSurveys Psychological Tests Descriptive Methods Social psychologists use five major types of descriptive methods
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods: Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic observation involves observing behavior as it unfolds in its natural setting. Advantages: Behaviors are spontaneous. Doesn’t rely on people’s ability to report on their own experiences Naturalistic observation involves observing behavior as it unfolds in its natural setting. Advantages: Behaviors are spontaneous. Doesn’t rely on people’s ability to report on their own experiences
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods: Naturalistic Observation Disadvantages: Researcher may interfere with ongoing behavior. Some interesting behaviors are very rare. Observer bias – The researcher may selectively attend to certain events and ignore others. This method is time consuming. Disadvantages: Researcher may interfere with ongoing behavior. Some interesting behaviors are very rare. Observer bias – The researcher may selectively attend to certain events and ignore others. This method is time consuming.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods: Case studies Case studies involve intensive examination of a single person or group. Advantages: Rich source of hypotheses Allows studies of rare behaviors Case studies involve intensive examination of a single person or group. Advantages: Rich source of hypotheses Allows studies of rare behaviors
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods: Case studies Disadvantages: Observer bias Difficult to generalize findings from a single case Impossible to reconstruct causes from complexity of past events Disadvantages: Observer bias Difficult to generalize findings from a single case Impossible to reconstruct causes from complexity of past events
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods Researchers can also examine archives, or public records of social behaviors. Advantages: Easy access to large amounts of pre-recorded data. Disadvantages: Many interesting social behaviors are never recorded. Researchers can also examine archives, or public records of social behaviors. Advantages: Easy access to large amounts of pre-recorded data. Disadvantages: Many interesting social behaviors are never recorded.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods: The Survey Method The survey method involves asking people questions about their beliefs and behaviors. Advantages: Allows study of difficult-to-observe behaviors, thoughts and feelings The survey method involves asking people questions about their beliefs and behaviors. Advantages: Allows study of difficult-to-observe behaviors, thoughts and feelings
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods: The Survey Method Disadvantages: People who respond may not be representative. Social desirability bias – the tendency for people to say what they believe is appropriate or acceptable Disadvantages: People who respond may not be representative. Social desirability bias – the tendency for people to say what they believe is appropriate or acceptable
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods: Psychological Tests Psychological tests involve attempts to assess an individual’s abilities, cognitions, motivations, or behaviors. Advantages: Allows measurement of characteristics that are not always easily observable Psychological tests involve attempts to assess an individual’s abilities, cognitions, motivations, or behaviors. Advantages: Allows measurement of characteristics that are not always easily observable
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods: Psychological Tests Disadvantages: Tests may be unreliable (yielding inconsistent scores). Tests may be reliable, but not valid (not measuring the actual characteristics they are designed to measure). Disadvantages: Tests may be unreliable (yielding inconsistent scores). Tests may be reliable, but not valid (not measuring the actual characteristics they are designed to measure).
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods The descriptive methods are useful in determining correlation. Correlation – the extent to which two or more more variables are associated with one another Correlation coefficient – a mathematical expression of the relationship between two variables The descriptive methods are useful in determining correlation. Correlation – the extent to which two or more more variables are associated with one another Correlation coefficient – a mathematical expression of the relationship between two variables
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods If we know two variables are highly correlated (e.g. ice cream sales are up on days when drowning incidents are highest), can we determine the causal relationship between them?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Variable A (ice cream) Variable A (ice cream) Variable B (drowning) Variable B (drowning) Descriptive Methods Variable A could cause Variable B. (Eating ice cream could cause cramps, which could lead to drowning) Variable A could cause Variable B. (Eating ice cream could cause cramps, which could lead to drowning)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods Variable B could cause Variable A. (Parents could buy kids more ice cream to console them after their friends drown) Variable B could cause Variable A. (Parents could buy kids more ice cream to console them after their friends drown) Variable A (ice cream) Variable A (ice cream) Variable B (drowning) Variable B (drowning)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Variable C (heat) Variable C (heat) Descriptive Methods Or a third variable could cause A and B. (Heat leads people to eat ice cream and to swim, but the two aren’t directly linked) Or a third variable could cause A and B. (Heat leads people to eat ice cream and to swim, but the two aren’t directly linked) Variable A (ice cream) Variable A (ice cream) Variable B (drowning) Variable B (drowning)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Descriptive Methods In order to determine causality we must turn to experimental methods.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Experimental Methods An experiment is a research method in which the researcher sets out to systematically manipulate one source of influence while holding others constant.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Experimental Methods Independent variable – the variable manipulated by the experimenter Dependent variable – the variable measured by the experimenter Independent variable – the variable manipulated by the experimenter Dependent variable – the variable measured by the experimenter
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Experimental Methods Social psychologists use two major types of experimental methods: Laboratory experiments Field experiments Social psychologists use two major types of experimental methods: Laboratory experiments Field experiments
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Experimental Methods: Laboratory Experiments Laboratory experiments involve the direct manipulation of (independent) variables and the observation of their effects on the behavior of other (dependent) variables.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Experimental Methods: Laboratory Experiments Advantages: Allows cause-effect conclusions Allows control of extraneous variables Advantages: Allows cause-effect conclusions Allows control of extraneous variables
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Experimental Methods: Laboratory Experiments Disadvantages: Artificial situations may not represent relevant events as they naturally unfold (subjects’ responses may not be natural, since they know they are being observed). Disadvantages: Artificial situations may not represent relevant events as they naturally unfold (subjects’ responses may not be natural, since they know they are being observed).
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Experimental Methods: Field Experiments Field experiments involve the manipulation of independent variables using unknowing participants in natural settings.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Experimental Methods: Field Experiments Advantages: Allow cause-effect conclusions Subjects give more natural responses. Disadvantages: Although participants don’t know they’re being observed, situation still unusual. Less control of extraneous factors than in laboratory experiments. Advantages: Allow cause-effect conclusions Subjects give more natural responses. Disadvantages: Although participants don’t know they’re being observed, situation still unusual. Less control of extraneous factors than in laboratory experiments.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Experimental Methods Internal validity – the extent to which an experiment allows confident statements about cause and effect External validity – the extent to which the results of an experiment can be generalized to other circumstances Internal validity – the extent to which an experiment allows confident statements about cause and effect External validity – the extent to which the results of an experiment can be generalized to other circumstances
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Experimental Methods Random assignment – the practice of assigning subjects to treatments so each subject has an equal chance of being in any condition
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Experimental Methods Confound – a variable that systematically changes along with the independent variable, potentially leading to a mistaken conclusion about the independent variable
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Experimental Methods Demand characteristics – cues that make subjects aware of how the experimenter expects them to behave
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Ethical Issues The American Psychological Association’s ethical guidelines for research includes: 1. Obtaining informed consent. Informed consent – a research subject’s agreement to participate after being informed of any potential risks and his or her right to withdraw at any time without penalty The American Psychological Association’s ethical guidelines for research includes: 1. Obtaining informed consent. Informed consent – a research subject’s agreement to participate after being informed of any potential risks and his or her right to withdraw at any time without penalty
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Ethical Issues 2.Fully debriefing subjects after the research is completed. Debriefing – a discussion of procedures, hypotheses, and subject reactions at the completion of the study 2.Fully debriefing subjects after the research is completed. Debriefing – a discussion of procedures, hypotheses, and subject reactions at the completion of the study
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Ethical Issues 3. Evaluating the costs and benefits of the research procedures.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon How Does Social Psychology Fit into the Network of Knowledge? Social psychology is closely connected to other sub-disciplines of psychology, including developmental, personality, clinical, cognitive and physiological psychology.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Developmental Area of Psychology Personality Clinical Example of Common Question Physiological Environmental Cognitive
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon Does early exposure to televised violence lead to increased aggressiveness in later years? Area of PsychologyExample of Common Question Developmental Personality Clinical Physiological Environmental Cognitive
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon What individual differences predict success in marital relationships? Area of PsychologyExample of Common Question Developmental Personality Clinical Physiological Environmental Cognitive
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon How do social dilemmas contribute to overpopulation and environmental destruction? Area of PsychologyExample of Common Question Developmental Personality Clinical Physiological Environmental Cognitive
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon How do normal feelings of attachment go awry in obsessive love relationships? Area of PsychologyExample of Common Question Developmental Personality Clinical Physiological Environmental Cognitive
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon How do attention-demanding distractions contribute to our ability to resist persuasive messages? Area of PsychologyExample of Common Question Developmental Personality Clinical Physiological Environmental Cognitive
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon How do hormones like adrenaline and testosterone contribute to aggression? Area of PsychologyExample of Common Question Developmental Personality Clinical Physiological Environmental Cognitive
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon How Does Social Psychology Fit into the Network of Knowledge? Social psychology also connects to other disciplines, including basic research sciences like biology and sociology as well as applied fields like organizational behavior and education.