Pastoral Peoples on the Global Stage: Robert W. Strayer Ways of the World: A Brief Global History Second Edition and Ways of the World: A Brief Global History with Sources Second Edition CHAPTER 11 Pastoral Peoples on the Global Stage: The Mongol Moment 1200–1500 Copyright © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin’s

The World of Pastoral Societies Pastoral societies needed large grazing areas Small populations Small scattered encampments People related (kinfolk) or clans Ranking – rich and poor slaves

Women offered a greater role than other societies - Productive labor, domestic duties, care of small animals Marriage of widows not negative as in China Women could get divorced Some served as political advisors and active in military affairs

Often called nomads as these societies often moved Connected and dependent on agriculture neighbors – food stuff and manufactured goods Large state among pastoral groups not an easy task Chinggis Khan forged tribal alliances and created a powerful state Fictive kinship – designating allies as blood relatives and treating them with respect

Military advantage Horseback riding skills of all male and female population Through raiding, trading and extortion – wealth Rulers could hold society together as long as wealth kept coming in All main religions - Manichaeism – 3rd birth 3rd century – religion with elements of Zoroastrian, Christian, Buddhist Top down conversion – ruler elite adopts religion and others follow

Before the Mongols: Pastoralist in History Art of horseback by 1000 CE -Horse harness, saddle, and iron stirrups, small compound bow, and new swords Pastoral people mastered horseback riding and later camel riding They mastered mounted warfare – made possible series of nomadic empires Played a major role in Afro-Eurasian history

Xiongnu – nomads who lived in Mongolian steppes north of China Penetrated Chinese territory 3rd & 2nd century BCE created a very large military confederacy – Manchuria to deep inside central Asia Modun 210-174 BCE, Charismatic leader created a centralized and hierarchical government system

Ruler divinely sanctioned Junior / senior clans Forced China Emperor Wen (Han Dynasty) to acknowledge equality of people he called barbarian Empire eventually y falls after repeated Chines attacks Established model for later empires Nomadic people played a part in the fall of Roman and Han empires

3rd wave civilizations – Arabs, Berbers, Turks, and Mongols – all nomadic beginnings Create the largest and influential empires (for this time period) Most of Eurasia, Byzantium, Persia, India, and China came under control or previously nomadic peoples 1st was the Arabs in Arabian Peninsula Developed a camel saddle 500-100 BCE Great fighters gained control of trade routes

Turks Turning point in history / conversion to Islam 10th and 14th century Migrated into Middle East Served as slave soldiers in Abbasid Caliphate and as the Caliphate decline they assumed power Seljuk Empire 11th and 12th century centered in Persia and present day Iraq Turkic rulers claimed the title Sultan Invaded India, Anatolia Created the Ottoman Empire by 1500 was a great power in Eurasia

Africa Berbers living Western Sahara Converted to Islam Scholar Ibn Yasin returned from Mecca and Islam spread with orthodox principles -Created the Almoravid Empire Northwestern Africa and into Spain by 1086 Took Islamic culture to Morocco and Spain

Mongol Empire 13th century creating the largest empire in human history Pacific coast of Asia to Eastern Europe Links Europe, China and Islamic world Very destructive process / established networks of exchange and communication

Gave no new language, religion or civilization Did not try and spread their faith Religion – ritual invoking ancestors and consulting shamans who predict future, offer sacrifice and communicate with spirit world Once conquered given status of defeated people, subordinate, exploited

Temujin 1162-1227 later known as Chinggis Khan (universal ruler) 12th century Mongols were feuding clans with murder and slaughter Father was minor chieftain killed by tribal rivals when he was 10 Family soon deserted – social outcasts Chinggis Khan made friends his allies and built a following of people he could trust

Allied with a tribal leader His military victory over rival tribe made Chinggis Khan a chief with a growing number of followers Shifting alliances and betrayals, military victories, reputation as leader and friend allowed him to join defeated tribes into his own 1206 a Mongol assemble appointed him Chinggis Khan (supreme leader)

Unified Mongol nation 1209 first attack on settled agriculture societies south of Mongolia Started a campaign of massive killings, and empire building Chinggis Khan, followed by sons and grandsons create an empire that contains China, Korea, Central Asia, Russia and much of Islam Middle east

Mongol Moment Mongol Empire grew quickly and without any great plan Each victory provided the Mongols needed resources for making war Mongol armies better led, better organized and more disciplined than opponents Fighting units of 10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000 warriors Loyalty to leader and if any member of a unit deserted all were subject to death

Leaders would share hardships with warriors, Eat same foods, sleep on the same ground and wear the same clothes Always at the front of a battle and never at the rear Enormous wealth from conquered civilizations = all Mongols could dress in linens and silks and own slaves

Large numbers of conquered people were placed into the army Mongol and Turic were Calvary units and other people made up infantry and artillery forces Conquered people, served a laborers building roads, bridges Artisans, craftsmen and skilled people were identified and spared from massacre

Mongol army reputation - Brutality and destructiveness Whoever submits will be spared and those who resisted were destroyed including wives and children Psychological warfare -City after city destroyed Enemy soldiers passed out to army for destruction Women and skilled laborers enslaved Others used as shield during attacks, or fill in moats

Empire -Relay stations set up across empire with horses (pony express) Census taking Fostered trade – often paid merchants 10% above asking price and allowed them to use relay stations Mongols had to position in government but allowed Chinese and Muslims lower level positions Mongols welcomed and supported different religions

China and the Mongols Mongol invasion of China started in the north 1209 This area had been under nomadic control Marked by great destruction and plunder Southern China controlled by Song

Here the Mongols allowed land owners to keep estates in exchange for support Some educated Chinese believed the Mongols were given the Mandate of Heaven Used Chinese administration practices, taxation and postal system Khubilai Khan Grandson of Chinggis Khan 1271-1294 Yuan Dynasty Improved roads / Built canals

Supported peasant agriculture Mongol rule was still harsh Mongols did not become Chinese and most did not learn the language Intermarriage forbidden Empire last just over 1 hundred years Friction among Mongol groups, epidemics (plague) and peasant rebellions combined to force Mongols out of China by 1368

Persia and Mongols 1st invasion led by Chinggis Khan, 1219-1221 – 30 years later a 2nd attack under grandson Hulegu who became the first il-khan (subordinate khan) of Persia More destructive than that of China Islamic people were shocked that Mongols (infidels) had defeated them

Slaughter of people was greatest in Persian history Sacking of Baghdad 1258 was end of the Abbasid caliphate – 200,000 people slaughtered Heavy taxes, torture pushed large numbers of peasants off land Agriculture suffered but wine making prospered along with silk industry When Mongol Empire in Persia collapsed – Mongols assimilated into Persian society

Russia and Mongols Mongols marched into Russia between 1237 and 1240 Land divided and controlled by princes who could not unite Great destruction and massacre of thousands Armed with catapults and battering rams Khanate of the Golden Horde

Mongols did not occupy Russia had little to offer Russian princes were given appointments from the Khan Required to send tribute to Mongol capital Russian Orthodox Church flourished Nobles who joined Mongols on raids shared in the wealth

Golden Horde was still very nomadic and did not change as a result of contact with Russia Residing in the Steppes they eventually adopted Islam and lost their distinct culture

Toward World economy Mongols were not active traders but promoted international commerce Taxed trade and extracted wealth -Financed merchants, used standardized weights and measures and gave tax breaks to merchants Linked Europe, China Many traders along the Silk Road – guide books printed

Diplomacy on Eurasian Scale Facilitated diplomatic relations from one end of Eurasia to the other Mongols had attacked Polish, German and Hungarian forces but the death of the Great Khan Ogodei ended the threat Western Europe was spared Pope sent monks to Mongol capital to find out their intentions, convert to Christianity and to get assistance in Crusades

No alliances were made or widespread conversions Did give Europeans a better understanding of a larger world Cultural Exchange in the Mongol Realm Mongol policy of forced relocation, religious tolerance, and support of merchants led to great exchange of cultures Chinese technology – gunpowder, printing, weapons, compass, navigation, high temperature furnaces, and medical skills

Plague: An Afro-Eurasian Pandemic Black Death Spread across trade routes early 14th century Carried by rodents and transmitted by fleas Started in China 1331 and reached Western Europe by 1347 Infected corpses used by Mongols and catapulted into city of Caffa in 1409

1409 reached East Africa most likely by ocean trade Killed 50%-90% of populations / ½ the population of Europe Plague caused long term changes Labor shortages stated the collapse of serfdom, new technology and employment for women

Plague caused trading network to diminish Provided incentive for Europeans to take to the sea in their attempt to reach Asia Europeans will become the leaders in fostering trade with India and China