Topics PART ONE: Methods of Studying the Nervous System 5.1 Methods of Visualizing and Stimulating the Living Human Brain 5.2 Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity 5.3 Invasive Physiological Research Methods 5.4 Pharmacological Research Methods 5.5 Genetic Engineering PART TWO: Behavioral Research Methods of Biopsychology 5.6 Neuropsychological Testing 5.7 Behavioral Methods of Cognitive Neuroscience 5.8 Biopsychological Paradigms of Animal Behavior Wood1.

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Methods of Visualizing and Stimulating the Living Human Brain Contrast X-rays – inject something that absorbs X-rays less or more than surrounding tissue cerebral angiography X-Ray computed tomography Computer-assisted X-ray procedure Provides a 3-D representation of the brain FIGURE 5.2: Computed tomography (CT) uses X-rays to create a CT scan of the brain.

Methods of Visualizing and Stimulating the Living Human Brain Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) High resolution images Constructed from measurement of waves that hydrogen atoms emit when activated within a magnetic field Positron emission tomography (PET) Provides images of brain activity Scan is an image of levels of radioactivity in various parts of one horizontal level of the brain A radiolabeled substance is administered prior to the scan Wood1. Credit PET scan ©istockphoto.com/BanksPhotos

Methods of Visualizing and Stimulating the Living Human Brain Functional MRI (fMRI) Provides images of brain structure and activity As with MRI, uses strong magnetic field Structure is imaged using waves emitted by hydrogen ions Function is imaged using signal created from interaction between oxygen and iron in the blood -- BOLD signal Magnetoencephalography A measure of neural activity Measures changes in magnetic fields on the surface of the scalp Fast temporal resolution Wood1. Credit PET scan ©istockphoto.com/BanksPhotos

Methods of Visualizing and Stimulating the Living Human Brain Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) NOT a measure of neural activity Provides an experimental probe to alter neural activity TMS applies a brief, strong magnetic field that alters neural activity -- Can either activate or “deactivate” brain structures -- Observe changes in behavior Wood1. Credit PET scan ©istockphoto.com/BanksPhotos

Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity Scalp electroencephalography (EEG) Measure of gross electrical activity of the brain Uses electrodes attached to scalp Many techniques of EEG Wave form assessment (e.g., alpha waves) Event-related potentials (ERPs) Combination of EEG with MRI L3.42

Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity FIGURE 5.8: Some typical electroencephalograms and their psychological correlates L3.42

Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity FIGURE 5.9: The averaging of an auditory evoked potential. Averaging increases the signal-to-noise ratio L3.42

Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity Muscle tension Electromyography is the technique of measuring the electrical activity of muscles Electromyogram (EMG) indicates tension of muscles under the skin Eye movement Electrooculography is the technique of recording eye movements Electrooculogram (EOG) indicates changes in electrical potential between the front and back of the eyeball Wade6.22

Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity FIGURE 5.12: The relation between a raw EMG signal and its integrated version. The subject tensed the muscle beneath the electrodes and then gradually relaxed it. L3.42

Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity FIGURE 5.13: The typical placement of electrodes around the eye for electrooculography. The two electrooculogram traces were recorded as the subject scanned a circle. L3.42

Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity Skin Conductance Cardiovascular Activity Measures of electrodermal activity Techniques include measurement of skin conductance leavel (SCL) and skin conductance response (SCR) Often used to link physiological changes with emotional state Measures include heart rate, blood pressure, and blood volume

Requires use of sterotaxic atlas and instrument Invasive Physiological Research Methods Stereotaxic surgery Requires use of sterotaxic atlas and instrument FIGURE 5.14: Stereotaxic surgery: implanting an electrode in the rat amygdala L3.42

Lesion methods Invasive Physiological Research Methods Bilateral and unilateral lesions Several procedures each requiring careful interpretation of effects Aspiration lesions Radio-frequency lesions Knife cuts Cryogenic blockade L3.42

Invasive Physiological Research Methods Electrical stimulation Lesioning can be used to remove, damage, or inactivate a structure Electrical stimulation may be used to “activate” a structure Stimulation of a structure may have an effect opposite to that seen when the structure is lesioned

Invasive Physiological Research Methods Invasive electrophysiological recording methods: Intracellular unit recording Membrane potential of a neuron Extracellular unit recording Firing of a neuron Multiple-unit recording Firing of many neurons Invasive EEG recording L3.42

Invasive Physiological Research Methods

Pharmacological Research Methods Routes of drug administration Fed to subject Injected through a tube into stomach of subject Injected hypodermically into the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen, into the fatty tissue beneath the skin, or into a large surface vein of the subject Selective chemical lesions Wood1.

Measuring Chemical Activity of the Brain 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) technique Inject animal with radioactive 2-DG and allow it to engage in behavior or interest Use autoradiography to see where radioactivity accumulates in brain slices Cerebral dialysis – measures extracellular concentration of specific chemicals in live animals Credit hand holding rat ©iStockphoto.com/sidsnapper

Locating Neurotransmitters and Receptors in the Brain Dye or radioactive labels used to visualize the protein of interest Immunocytochemistry – based on the binding of labeled protein-specific antibodies Immune response – antibodies created that bind and remove/destroy antigens (foreign proteins) In situ hybridization – uses labeled RNA to locate neurons with complementary mRNA

Genetic Engineering Gene knockout techniques Subjects missing a given gene can provide insight into what the gene controls Difficult to interpret results – most behavior is controlled by many genes and removing one gene may alter the expression of others, including compensation for missing gene Antisense drugs block expression of a gene Gene replacement techniques Insert pathological human genes in mice Wood1.

Fantastic Fluorescence and the Brainbow Green fluorescent protein (GFP) exhibits bright green florescence when exposed to blue light Variants of the gene for GFP can express other colors These GFP genes can be inserted into DNA of neurons—color can then be viewed when targeted neuronal genes are expressed Brainbow Wade6.7

Neuropsychological Testing Time-consuming – only conducted on a small portion of those with brain damage Assists in diagnosing neural disorders Serves as a basis for counseling/caring Provides information on effectiveness and side effects of treatment L1.20

Modern Approaches to Neuropsychological Testing Single-test Used to differentiate brain damage from functional (psychological) causes Standardized-test-battery Same goal as single-test approach Halstead-Reitan, for example Customized-test-battery Now predominant Characterizes nature of psychological deficits L1.20

Tests of the Common Neuropsychological Test Battery Intelligence Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale WAIS, an IQ test Memory Digit span subtest Language – problems of phonology, syntax, or semantics Language lateralization – used to identify language-dominant hemisphere Sodium amytal – anesthetize one hemisphere Dichotic listening – ear contralateral to dominant hemisphere shows superior hearing ability

Tests of the Common Neuropsychological Test Battery Memory – exploring nature of deficits Short-term, long-term, or both? Anterograde or retrograde? Semantic or episodic? Explicit or implicit? (repetition priming tests) Language – problems of phonology, syntax, or semantics Frontal-Lobe Function Wisconsin Card Sorting Task 28

Behavioral Methods of Cognitive Neuroscience Each complex cognitive process results from the combined activity of simple cognitive processes (constituent cognitive processes) Each complex cognitive process is mediated by neural activity in a particular area of the brain Goal is to identify the parts of the brain that mediate various constituent cognitive processes Paired-image subtraction technique: compare PET or fMRI images during several different cognitive tasks Wood1.

Biopsychological Paradigms of Animal Behavior Procedures developed for the investigation of a particular behavioral phenomenon Assessment of Species-common behaviors: Open-field test Tests of Aggressive and Defensive Behavior Tests of Sexual Behavior Credit hand holding rat ©iStockphoto.com/sidsnapper

Biopsychological Paradigms of Animal Behavior Traditional Conditioning Paradigms: Pavlovian conditioning (pairing an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus) Operant conditioning Self-stimulation Credit hand holding rat ©iStockphoto.com/sidsnapper

Seminatural Animal Learning Paradigms: Biopsychological Paradigms of Animal Behavior Seminatural Animal Learning Paradigms: Conditioned Taste Aversion Radial Arm Maze Morris Water Maze Conditioned Defensive Burying Seminatural Animal Learning Paradigms include: Conditioned Taste Aversion Pairing something that makes an animal ill (emetic) with a taste Challenged existing assumptions about conditioning Animals appear prepared to associate tastes and illness Radial Arm Maze Spatial learning Morris Water Maze Rat must find hidden platform in an opaque pool Conditioned Defensive Burying Following a single aversive stimulus delivered from an object, rats will spray bedding at the object Anti-anxiety drugs decrease the amount of burying behavior L3.42

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Acknowledgments Slide Image Description Image Source template lightning ©istockphoto.com/Soubrette background texture ©istockphoto.com/Hedda Gjerpen ch05 image Someone whose brain is being studied in a lab ©istockphoto.com/annedde 3 Figure 5.2 Pinel 8e, p. 103 4 PET scan ©istockphoto.com/BanksPhotos 7, 17 someone whose brain is being studied in a lab 8 Figure 5.8 Pinel 8e, p. 107 9 Figure 5.9 Pinel 8e, p. 108 10 eye ©istockphoto.com/Tyler Stalman 11 Figure 5.12 Pinel 8e, p. 109 12 Figure 5.13 Pinel 8e, p. 110 14 Figure 5.14 Pinel 8e, p. 111 15 Figure 5.15 Pinel 8e, p. 112 Figure 5.16 Pinel 8e, p. 113 16 EKG Heartbeat ©istockphoto.com/dan ionut popescu 18 Figure 5.17 Pinel 8e, p. 114 19 pill background ©istockphoto.com/Fotografia Basica 20 hand holding rat ©iStockphoto.com/sidsnapper 21, 28 brain ©istockphoto.com/Stephen Kirklys 22 DNA ©istockphoto.com/Mark Evans 22, 29 white rat ©iStockphoto.com/Elena Butinova

Acknowledgments 23 colored smoke ©istockphoto.com/Wolfgang Amri 24, 25 blue sky & clouds ©istockphoto.com/kertlis 24 neuron ©istockphoto.com/ktsimage 26, 27 book ©istockphoto.com/Carmen Martínez Banús 27 Figure 5.23 Pinel 8e, p. 122 30 salivating dog ©istockphoto.com/Jess Wiberg hand ©istockphoto.com/Stas Perov bell ©istockphoto.com/Igor Sandra dog food bowl ©istockphoto.com/Jonas Engström 31 Figure 5.26 Pinel 8e, p. 126 32 laptop ©istockphoto.com/CostinT table and wall ©istockphoto.com/David Clark