Introduction to Criminology Instructor: Jorge Pierrott CRJ 270 Instructor: Jorge Pierrott

5 Biosocial and Other Contemporary Perspectives

Chapter Objectives After reading this chapter, students should be able to answer the following questions: What was the purpose of the Human Genome Project (HGP), and what is its significance for modern biological theories of crime? What role do genetics and heritability play in contemporary explanations for crime? How does brain dysfunction relate to criminality? How do body chemistry theories – including those involving diet, blood sugar levels, environmental contaminants, and hormones – explain crime? What are biosocial theories, and what role does the gender ratio problem play in contemporary criminology? What are the policy implications of modern biological theories of crime?

The Human Genome Project Testing of Connecticut school shooter Adam Lanza’s DNA to determine if he possessed any abnormalities. The human genome refers to a complete copy of the entire set of human gene instructions. Genes are made of DNA and carry coded instructions for making everything the body needs. Chromosomes are bundles of genes. The Human Genome Project is an international research program designed to construct detailed maps of the human genome; it was officially declared completed in 2003. The HGP marked the beginning of a new era of research into human biology and changed understandings of human nature, disease, cognition, and behavior continued on next slide

The Human Genome Project International research project mapping the human genome. Determine complete chemical sequence of the human DNA HGP sequenced entire genomic sequence of a reference human genome Current focus of genomics Finding variants from reference sequence

The Human Genome Project Knowledge developed by HGP may have major implications for individuals and society. Genetic knowledge can have significant implications for criminal justice What can we discover from the HGP research? What is it expected to accomplish? Support the development of public policy options related to crime prevention and offender treatment. The human genome refers to a complete copy of the entire set of human gene instructions Genes are made of DNA and carry coded instructions for making everything the body needs Chromosomes are bundles of genes The focus has now turned to finding individual differences or variants from the reference human genome that was developed by the HGP   B. Genetic knowledge can have significant implications for criminal justice Many of the questions raised about the role of genetics in behavior may be answered by the results of research begun by the HGP HGP-related information is expected to support the development of public policy options related to crime prevention and offender treatment

Genetics and Heritability Dutch research found male descendants of a “criminal family” had high proportion of violent crime arrests. Researchers H. Hilger Ropers and Han Brunner suggest that because males have only one X chromosome, they are more vulnerable to any defective gene, while women (with two X chromosomes) have a sort of backup system. Recent research in the Netherlands by Ropers, Brunner, and collaborators into a criminal family has found that male descendants had near-normal IQs but showed a high proportion of arrests for violations of the criminal law Ropers and Brunner suggest that because males have only one X chromosome, they are more vulnerable to any defective gene, while women (with two X chromosomes) have a sort of backup system continued on next slide

Genetics and Heritability Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA): Enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters serotonin and noradrenaline. Neurotransmitters are the chemicals that transmit the flow of electrical impulses. Men with mutated genes do not produce enough of this enzyme. Excess amounts of MAOA linked to aggression. Resulting in uncontrolled urges and ultimately, criminal behavior They claim to have isolated the specific gene responsible for the family’s criminality: the one responsible for production of the enzyme MAOA MAOA breaks down the neurotransmitters serotonin and noradrenaline; excess amounts of these chemicals have been linked to aggressive behavior If the body does not produce this enzyme, the brain is overwhelmed with stimulation, resulting in uncontrollable urges and criminal behavior

Genetics and Heritability University of Texas Health Science Center (S.A) Pleasure-seeking gene (Allele or DRD2 A1) may play a role in deviant behavior, addictions, violence. The gene is normally involved in controlling dopamine flow What does it do? Diminishes dopamine function. May lead to people engaging in dopamine-like experiences, such as drinking or using drugs. Or in some cases to violence and/or murder. Researchers at the University of Texas have discovered a pleasure-seeking gene that may play a role in deviant behavior The gene is normally involved in controlling dopamine flow When defective, the allele of the gene diminishes dopamine function, which may lead people to engage in activities that produce a dopamine-like experience, like drinking or using drugs

Genetics and Heritability Researchers – Capsi and Moffitt Heritability linked to callous-unemotional behavior. Can childhood maltreatment lead to a risk factor in adulthood? Genes and environment work together to produce significant antisocial behavior. What was discovered? In some cases, genetic pre-dispositions and their interaction with the surrounding social and physical environments combine to produce delinquency. Caspi, Moffitt, and colleagues have proposed a gene-environment interaction model They recognized that childhood maltreatment appears to be a universal risk factor in adulthood but noted that not all maltreated children grow up to be criminal They hypothesized that the development of antisocial behavior was mediated by an interaction between a gene responsible for MAOA production and maltreatment (an environmental variable) The finding that maltreated children with high MAOA did not develop antisocial behavior was supported by several international studies Other researchers have also found significant biosocial interaction between MAOA and early child abuse, leading to violence later in life Basically, in some cases, it appears that genetic predispositions and their interaction with the surrounding social and physical environments combine to produce delinquency

Future Directions in the Study of Genes and Crime Explanatory power of heritability limited – may apply only to environments existing at the time of a given study If population or environment changes, heritability may change also Genes appear to be both the cause and consequence of our actions – they enable rather than determine human action. The explanatory power of heritability appears to be limited by the fact that it may apply only to specific environments that existed at the time of a given study If the population or the environment changes, the heritability may change also Genes appear to be both the cause and consequence of our actions – they enable rather than determine human action

The Dysfunctional Brain Position emission tomography (PET) scans found lower glucose levels in prefrontal cortex of murderers Prefrontal cortex dysfunction may predispose someone to crime rather than being a direct cause of crime Frontal brain hypothesis. A gene defect that leads to a communications breakdown in the brain predisposes people to schizophrenia. Some researchers have explored brain dysfunction as it relates to criminality Some research using PET scans to examine the prefrontal cortex of the brain has found that murderers had lower levels of glucose uptake in the prefrontal cortex than controls However, because prefrontal cortex dysfunction may result in various social and educational problems, it may not be a direct cause of crime, but may predispose someone to crime and violence Other studies of the orbital cortex have produced results leading to the frontal brain hypothesis, that a gene defect that leads to a communications breakdown in the brain predisposes people to schizophrenia continued on next slide

Figure 5-1 The Human Brain Showing the Prefrontal Cortex and the Amygdala Source: Schmalleger, Frank J., Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

The Dysfunctional Brain Allergic reactions to foods have been linked to violence and homicide. Foods such as milk, citrus fruit, chocolate, corn, wheat and eggs may lead to swelling of the brain and stem. Physical injuries, emotional trauma, disease, longer term exposure to stress can lead to changes in the brain Link between stressors in the social environment and brain structure Other brain mechanisms may also be involved in aggression Food allergies and food additives have also been associated with criminal violence – allergic reactions to some foods lead to a swelling of the brain and brain stem, which may reduce the amount of learning during childhood and may contribute to delinquency and adult crime Physical injuries, emotional trauma, disease, and long-term exposure to stress can also lead to changes in the brain Stressors in the social environment are linked to brain structure continued on next slide

The Dysfunctional Brain Neuroplasticity Brain can alter its structure or function in response to experience or injury Recently, some scientists have advanced the concept of neuroplasticity (brain plasticity, cortical plasticity) to explain why some people experience significant personality changes while undergoing new experiences Neuroplasticity suggests that the brain can alter its structure and function in response to new experiences Scientists suggest that the brain is also malleable in response to internal stimuli (e.g., thought)

Body Chemistry and Criminality Body chemistry is influenced by factors such as eating habits, vitamin deficiencies, environmental contaminants, and the endocrine system You really ARE what you eat! Ingested Substances and Nutrition Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) has been linked to hyperactivity, aggressiveness, and crime; however, at the moment, the evidence regarding sugar’s impact on behavior is unclear Some food additives (MSG, food dyes, artificial flavorings) have been implicated in producing criminal violence Caffeine and sugar may trigger antisocial behavior, although the research is unclear as to the direction of the relationship Diets deficient in various vitamins and other nutrients can increase aggressiveness and agitation and open the door to crime The relationship between other nutrients (e.g., omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids) and behavior has also been assessed

Ingested Substances and Nutrition Early research linked excess sugar consumption to crime but the current evidence on the sugar/behavior link is unclear. Dan White – “Twinkie Defense” He murdered San Francisco Mayor George Moscone and city Councilman Harvey Milk. This was contradicted in 1994 by the New England Journal of Medicine. continued on next slide

Ingested Substances and Nutrition Some food additives (MSG, dyes, artificial flavorings) may be linked to violence Coffee and sugar may trigger antisocial behavior Vitamins, other nutrients may have behavioral impact. Higher intake of omega 3 fatty acids lead to a reduction of hostility.

Environmental Pollution Several studies have found a link between industrial and environmental pollution and violent behavior Correlation between juvenile crime and exposure to lead and manganese Prenatal substance exposure may lead to higher rates of conduct disorders, delinquency, psychiatric problems Various substances found in the environment have been linked to criminal behavior A 1997 research study suggested that high levels of various environmental and industrial pollutants (particularly lead and manganese) may cause people to commit violent crime Prenatal substance exposure to marijuana, tobacco smoke, alcohol, etc., appear to be linked to problems both in childhood and later in life

Hormones and Criminality Testosterone Relationship between high blood levels of testosterone and increased male aggressiveness Effect may be moderated by social environment Small changes in female testosterone levels also linked to personality changes Hormone – a chemical substance produced by the body that regulates and controls the activity of certain cells or organs Testosterone, a male sex hormone, has been linked to aggression Most research consistently has shown a relationship between high blood testosterone levels and increased male aggressiveness, although it may be mediated by the influence of testosterone on social integration and on prior involvement in juvenile delinquency Subtle changes in testosterone levels in women have also been linked to changes in personality and sexual behavior, but the research is limited continued on next slide

Hormones and Criminality Androgens – male hormones High blood levels linked to aggression in boys but not girls. A study revealed that boys with a higher level of androgens in their blood exhibited the most persistent aggression. Fluctuations in female hormones may also be linked to crime. PMS defense – Christine English was exonerated in a British court with this defense. Fluctuations in the level of female hormones may also have some relationship to law violation continued on next slide

Hormones and Criminality Serotonin – behavior-regulating chemical Elevated blood levels/lower brain levels linked to violence in men Imbalance between levels of serotonin and dopamine highly associated with psychopathic traits Serotonin Aggressive behavior in men may also be influenced by high testosterone levels combined with low brain levels of serotonin One study found that enhancing brain levels of serotonin was linked to decreases in aggression and impulsivity Other hormones (e.g., cortisol, thyroid hormone T3) have also been found to be related to delinquency and poor impulse control Higher levels of oxytoin, the “trust hormone,” appear to make people more trusting; researchers have suggested con men might use this to manipulate their victims continued on next slide

Hormones and Criminality Other hormones implicated in delinquency and poor impulse control include cortisol and T3 (thyroid hormone)

Climate, Weather, and Crime Temperature is the only weather variable consistently related to crime. Researchers Ellen Cohn and James Rotton have found temperature to be related to crimes such as assault, property offenses, domestic violence, and disorderly conduct. Relationship moderated by temporal factors. (Temp, time of day, day of week) Uncomfortably hot and cold temperatures keep people apart. Research findings consistent with routine activities theory Research into the relationship between weather and criminal behavior suggests that temperature is the only weather variable consistently and reliably related to crime Field research generally has found a definite positive correlation between temperature and violent crime, which appears to be moderated by temporal factors such as time of day, day of week, and season Cohn and Rotton have found temperature to be related to crimes such as assault, property offenses, domestic violence, and disorderly conduct Their results are consistent with predictions that might be derived from routine activities theory Uncomfortably hot and cold temperatures keep people apart, reducing the contact between motivated offenders and suitable targets Temporal variables moderate the relationship between temperature and crime by also affecting opportunity continued on next slide

Climate, Weather, and Crime Possible link between barometric pressure and violent crime Historical correlation between high temperatures, extreme rainfall patterns, and violence Other research suggests a link between barometric pressure and criminal offending Recent research found an historical correlation between high temperatures, extreme rainfall patterns, and violence

Figure 5-2 Assault as a Function of Temperature Source: E. G Figure 5-2 Assault as a Function of Temperature Source: E . G. Cohn and J. Rotton, “Assault as a Function of Time and Temperature: A Moderator-Variable Time-Series Analysis,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 72 (1997), pp. 1322–1334. Data used with permission.

Biosocial Criminology Crime and Human Nature (1985) Comprehensive theory of crime that included constitutional factors Constitutional factors which contribute to crime. They include: Gender Age Body type Intelligence and Personality In 1985, James Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein wrote Crime and Human Nature, a revival of biological criminology The purpose of the book was in part to revive discussions of biological causes of crime and move away from a totally sociological explanation They cited a variety of constitutional factors which contribute to crime, including gender, age, body type, intelligence, and personality They also recognized social factors in the development of personality but suggested that constitutional factors predispose one to specific types of behavior and that societal reactions to such predispositions may determine the form of continued behavior continued on next slide

Biosocial Criminology Biosocial criminology – Anthony Walsh Biological factors do not operate in an environmental vacuum, environmental factors do not operate in a biological vacuum. Interaction of biology and the social and environmental conditions. Andrew Walsh is a major proponent of biosocial criminology He emphasizes the importance of recognizing the interaction of biology and the environment in the formation of behavioral responses to given situations He says that biological factors do not operate in an environmental vacuum and environmental factors do not operate in a biological vacuum Diana Fishbein, a behavioral science expert also argues that biological factors interact dynamically with social and environmental conditions to contribute to or insulate from social dysfunction

Figure 5-3 Selected Biological Factors Recognized by Biosocial Theory

Gender Differences in Criminality Gender ratio problem need for an explanation of the fact that men are more involved in crime than women Early explanations focused on culture and the social environment – lack contemporary validation. Females make up 51% of the population in the U.S., but are arrested for less than 20% of all violent crimes and almost 38% of property crimes. The gender ratio problem relates to the differences between female and male rates of offending – for nearly all crimes, the number of crimes committed by men far exceeds the number of crimes committed by women The data on the extent of male-female criminality has been surprisingly stable over time continued on next slide

Gender Differences in Criminality Biosocial criminologists say that if we admit that there is something about gender itself that is responsible for the observed differences, the problem is resolved. Does culture play a role in criminality? Culture has changed, has the proportion of crime committed by women risen? Suggestions that culture plays the major role in determining criminality are contradicted by the fact that the proportion of women participating in crime has remained fairly constant over a long period of time, despite cultural changes that have created new opportunities for women in crime Although female criminality is probably culturally determined to a great extent, biosocial criminologists suggest that the organic correlates of gender provide the needed explanation The sexual selection paradigm seeks to explain male/female differences within species and suggest that gender socialization rests on a bedrock of sex-differentiated biology forged by thousands of years of contrasting sexual selection pressures

Evolutionary Theory Evolutionary perspective suggests that behavioral traits are manifestations of multiple genes working independently and synergistically in response to the environment. The evolutionary perspective: Seeks to explain behavior with reference to human evolutionary history Recognizes the influence genes have over human traits Researchers have suggested that behavioral traits result from multiple genes working independently and synergistically in response to the environment continued on next slide

Evolutionary Theory Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory Propensity for crime commission evolved as part of the male reproductive strategy A particular neurochemistry, characteristic of males, increases the probability of crime among males relative to females Ellis’s evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory has two propositions: The propensity for crime commission evolved among humans as part of the male reproductive strategy A particular neurochemistry, characteristic of males, increases the probability of criminality among males relative to females

Policy Implications of Biological Theories Steven Pinker claims social scientists unjustly ignore the biological basis of human behavior and replace it with three myths: The blank slate The Noble Savage The Ghost in the Machine MIT cognitive scientist Steven Pinker claims that social scientists unjustly ignore the biological basis of human behavior He suggests that it has been replaced with three myths: The myth of the blank slate holds that the human mind has no innate traits and that personality is fully malleable by society The myth of the Noble Savage says human nature is essentially good The Ghost in the Machine myth holds that each person has an individual soul-like quality that can make choices that can be completely independent of any biological predispositions According to Pinker, these myths make up the modern social science model and have led to misguided policies Effective social policies cannot be developed until the impact of biology on human behavior is recognized continued on next slide

Policy Implications of Biological Theories No genes for criminal behavior but genes may affect brain functioning and influence chances of learning socially unacceptable behavior patterns Ellis and Walsh have attempted to bring biological theorizing into the criminological mainstream They point out that in the case of behavior, nearly all effects of genes are indirect because they are mediated through complex chains of events occurring in the brain There are almost certainly no genes for criminal behavior but genes may affect brain functioning in ways that increase or reduce the chances of individuals learning behavior patterns likely to result in criminal sanctioning

Critique of Biological and Biosocial Theories Fail to predict criminality accurately Methodological problems Studies in the area have often been based on small, non-representative samples. Findings difficult to generalize Do not explain regional, temporal variations in crime rates Many biological and biosocial perspectives have been criticized because they fail to accurately predict criminality while claiming to understand its causes Biosocial theories can be criticized in a number of ways, including methodological problems and difficulties in generalizing findings to other settings They do not explain regional and temporal variations in crime They cannot totally account for changes in crime rates over time or among different age groups within the same population continued on next slide

Critique of Biological and Biosocial Theories Cannot explain why some crimes are more likely to occur in certain parts of the country, certain types of communities, among members of specific subcultures rather than in others Some biosocial criminologists have been accused of racial and class bias Biological theories focusing on environmental and chemical precursors to crime cannot explain why some types of crime are more likely to occur in certain parts of the country, in particular communities, or among members of specific subcultures rather than in others Some biosocial criminologists have been accused of racial and class bias