Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada, Inc.21-1 PowerPoint Presentation Stan Hatfield. Southwestern Illinois College Ken Pinzke. Southwestern Illinois College Charles Henderson. University of Calgary Chapter 21 Mineral and Energy Resources
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc.21-2 Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources Mineral resources Canada has a rich supply, but no nation is completely self sufficient
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc.21-3 Canadian Per Capita Consumption of Selected Mineral Resources
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc.21-4 Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources Renewable resources Resource can be replenished over relatively short time spans Examples include –Plants –Animals for food –Trees for lumber –Energy from flowing water, sun, wind
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc.21-5 Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources Nonrenewable resources Significant deposits take millions of years to form; from a human perspective there are fixed quantities Examples –Fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) –Metals (iron, copper, uranium, gold) Some resources, such as groundwater, can be placed in either category depending on how they are used
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc.21-6 Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes Mineral deposits may be found in a variety of plate tectonic settings. Mineral resources include reserves = identified deposits from which minerals can be extracted profitably now or in the future with technological advances.
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc.21-7 Mineral resources Ore – refers to useful metallic minerals that can be mined at a profit and, in common usage, to some nonmetallic minerals such as fluorite and sulphur To be considered of value, an element must be concentrated above the level of its average crustal abundance Most nonmetallic minerals are generally not called ores, but rather they are called industrial minerals Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc.21-8
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc.21-9 Location of important metallic resources in Canada. Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Magmatic Deposits Some of the most important accumulations of metals are associated with magma that forms igneous rocks Certain metals are enriched in certain magmas and further concentrated during cooling of the magma Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Magmatic Deposits: Gravitational Settling –heavy minerals that crystallize early, settle and concentrate on the bottom of the magma chamber High-density minerals sink to the bottom of the magma chamber. Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Magmatic Deposits: Immiscibility –Separation and non-mixing of liquid phases of a magma (e.g., Sudbury, Ontario and Voisey’s Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador) –Nickel deposits of Sudbury and Voisey’s Bay have similar origins, but different triggering mechanisms A sample of nickel-bearing rock from Sudbury. Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Magmatic Deposits: Pegmatites –Melt remaining in last stages of cooling is rich in volatiles and rare elements –Such a melt is very fluid and invades cracks and results in large crystals Pegmatites, like these dykes from Ontario, are felsic composition rocks that are mined for uranium, thorium, beryllium, lithium, tantalum, niobium, feldspar, muscovite… Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes Hydrothermal Deposits Hydrothermal Deposits associated with Igneous Activity –Among the best known and important ore deposits, generated from hot-water solutions –Majority originate from hot, metal-rich fluids that are remnants of late-stage magmatic processes –Move along fractures, cool, and precipitate the metallic ions to produce vein deposits
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes Hydrothermal Deposits Hydrothermal Deposits associated with Igneous Activity –Can occur as disseminated deposits, which are distributed throughout the rock body, rather than concentrated in veins; called porphyry deposits = (low grade; large volume)
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes Hydrothermal Deposits Hydrothermal Deposits associated with Igneous Activity –Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide (VMS) deposits are pod-shaped bodies composed entirely of interlocking sulphide minerals –Heated seawater, rich in dissolved metals gushing from seafloor as black smokers today, may have produced VMS deposits in ancient rocks
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Hydrothermal Deposits at Black Smokers
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Pegmatite and Hydrothermal Disseminated Deposits
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes Sediment-Associated Hydrothermal Deposits Sedimentary Exhalative (SEDEX) Deposits –SEDEX deposits are thin layers of massive sulphide interbedded with sedimentary rocks (e.g., Sullivan Mine, British Columbia) SEDEX deposits typically occur in the sediment fills of rift basins.
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes Sediment-Associated Hydrothermal Deposits Sedimentary-Hosted Stratiform Deposits –Copper-bearing brines moving through coarse- grained sedimentary rock are forced upward through oxygen-poor, sulphide-rich mud, which promotes precipitation of minerals Mississippi Valley-type Deposits –Metal-bearing brines migrate toward basin edge and react with limestone
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes Sedimentary Deposits Banded Iron Formations –Reducing conditions for much of the early Precambrian resulted in large quantities of ferrous iron in solution –At some point, photosynthesizing bacteria (cyanobacteria) generated sufficient oxygen to precipitate insoluble iron oxide minerals –Form very important source of iron-ore on many continents including in the Lake Superior region
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes Sedimentary Deposits Placer deposits – formed when heavy metals are mechanically concentrated by currents Examples include –Gold, Platinum, Diamonds
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Klondike Gold Rush: placer miners with sluice box in 1901 (right) and modern gold mining on same creek in 2002 (left)
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes Deposits Associated with Metamorphism Many of the most important metamorphic ore deposits are produced by contact metamorphism –Sphalerite (zinc) –Galena (lead) –Chalcopyrite (copper)
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Skarns are Associated with Contact Metamorphism
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes Deposits Associated with Weathering Secondary enrichment – concentrating metals into economically valuable concentrations Bauxite –Principal ore of aluminum –Forms in rainy tropical climates from chemical weathering and the removal of undesirable elements by leaching
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Bauxite – the principal ore of aluminum
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Metallic Mineral Deposits and Geologic Processes Deposits Associated with Weathering Other deposits, such as many copper and silver deposits, result when weathering concentrates metals that are deposited through a low-grade primary ore
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonmetallic Resources Nonmetallic mineral resources Use of the word “mineral” is very broad Two common groups –Aggregate and Stone –Natural aggregate (crushed stone, sand, and gravel; latter two associated with glacial outwash deposits throughout Canada)
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc.21-30
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Significant Industrial Mineral Deposits in Canada.
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonmetallic Resources Industrial Minerals Diamonds –Most diamonds are found in unique ultramafic igneous rocks called kimberlites –Magma generated by partial melting of asthenosphere below 150 kilometres and then rises quickly to the surface, picking up diamonds from solid lithospheric mantle
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Kimberlite Pipes and Diamonds
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonmetallic Resources Other Industrial Minerals Clays Carbonate Minerals Evaporite Salts (potash very important resource in Devonian of Saskatchewan) Phosphate (Permian Phosphoria Formation in Idaho, USA) Sulphur
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Petroleum: Oil and natural gas Origin of petroleum lies in the alteration by heat of organic-matter concentrated in source rocks Organic matter is transformed into a solid waxy material called kerogen At higher temperatures the carbon-carbon bonds break in a process called cracking, eventually producing oil and then gas with progressively increasing temperatures
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Petroleum Migration and Traps Petroleum migrates into reservoir rocks until it is stopped by an impermeable cap rock A geologic environment that allows for economically significant amounts of oil and gas to accumulate underground is termed a petroleum trap –Common oil and natural gas traps include anticlinal traps, fault traps, and stratigraphic traps
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Common oil traps – anticline, fault, salt dome, and stratigraphic
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Oil and Natural Gas in Canada When the cap rock is punctured by drilling, the oil and natural gas, which are under pressure, migrate from the pore spaces of the reservoir rock to the drill hole Western Canada petroleum, especially in Alberta, is found in Devonian reefs and Mesozoic sandstone units Important petroleum deposits are being exploited offshore of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Petroleum-bearing areas in NA
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Coal Formed mostly from plant material Along with oil and natural gas, coal is commonly called a fossil fuel The major fuel used in power plants to generate electricity Problems with coal use include environmental damage from mining and air pollution Most Western Canada coal is Cretaceous- Tertiary, but coal of Nova Scotia is Pennsylvanian (Upper Carboniferous)
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Coal Deposits in Canada
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Environmental Effects of Fossil Fuel Use Urban air pollution –Air pollutants are airborne particles and gases that occur in concentrations that endanger the health of organisms and disrupt the orderly functioning of the environment
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Environmental Effects of Fossil Fuel Use Two types of pollutants –Primary pollutants - emitted directly from identifiable sources –Secondary pollutants – formed when chemical reactions take place among primary pollutants
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Environmental Effects of Fossil Fuel Use Carbon dioxide and global warming –Burning fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide which is one of the gases responsible for warming the lower atmosphere –CO 2 is not the only gas responsible for global warming
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Environmental Effects of Fossil Fuel Use Carbon dioxide and global warming –Greenhouse effect – the atmosphere is transparent to incoming short-wavelength solar radiation. However, the outgoing long- wave radiation emitted by Earth is absorbed in the lower atmosphere, keeping the air near the ground warmer
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Heating of the Atmosphere
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Environmental Effects of Fossil Fuel Use Carbon dioxide and global warming –It appears that global temperatures have increased (global warming) due to a rising level of atmospheric carbon dioxide –Canada’s target under Kyoto Protocol is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 6% below 1990 levels by 2012
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Annual Average Global Temperatures
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Unconventional Fossil Fuel Deposits Heavy Oil Sands –Mixtures of sediment, water, and bitumen (a viscous black tar-like material) –Several substantial deposits around the world, including huge reserves in Alberta –Obtaining oil from tar sands is costly, but will play a major role as global conventional petroleum supplies decrease
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Unconventional Fossil Fuel Deposits Oil shale –Contains enormous amounts of untapped oil –Currently, because of world markets and with current technologies, not yet economic to extract
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Unconventional Fossil Fuel Resources in North America
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Unconventional Fossil Fuel Deposits Methane Hydrates –Solid substance with methane surrounded by water molecule cages –Found in permafrost and continental shelves –Currently uneconomic and many environmental concerns Methane hydrate from 850 metre deep seafloor west of Vancouver Island, B.C.
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Nonrenewable Energy Resources Unconventional Fossil Fuel Deposits Coal Bed Methane –Heating of coaly organic matter liberates methane –Currently uneconomic and groundwater contamination concerns Nuclear Energy –Nuclear fission and CANDU Reactors –Uranium occurrences –Obstacles to development
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Renewable Fuel Sources Organic-Based Sources –Landfill Methane –Biomass Energy Hydroelectric Power –Generated by falling water –Canada is a world leader in hydroelectricity production; most energy produced in large dams –62% of Canada’s electricity is hydro-generated
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Electricity Generation Sources in Canada and a Hydroelectric Dam in Quebec
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Renewable Fuel Sources Alternate energy sources Possible alternate energy sources –Solar Energy –Wind Energy –Geothermal Energy –Tidal Power
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc Solar Panels in Edmonton (left) and a Wind Farm near Pincher Creek, Alberta (right)
Copyright (c) 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc End of Chapter 21