Chapter 13 Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans

Early Settlement Patterns Chinese Exclusion Act of Gradual immigration from Increase in immigration came with the passage of the 1965 Immigration Act Americans held conflicting views on Chinese immigration from the beginning –Settlers unwilling to tolerate alien culture © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Early Settlement Patterns –Labor was welcomed Chinese Americans is a collective term –Vast diversity within the group Language, nationality, and region of origin Divisions are sharply expressed © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Early Settlement Patterns Significant component of Chinese in US: –Adopted by American non-Chinese couples –Chinese adoption laws loosened to promote adoptions of children –Mainly girls abandoned under one-child policy –Faced complex cultural & social identity issues © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Occupational Profile of Chinese Americans Early on discriminatory laws were passed –Making it difficult for Chinese to enter certain occupations Early on gravitated toward service occupations or low paying jobs –That whites found undesirable © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Occupational Profile of Chinese Americans Chinese sought relative safety of Chinatowns and the tourist industry –New immigrants find it difficult finding jobs outside of Chinatown –Lack of English is another reason for new immigrants seeking work in Chinatown © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chinatowns Today The economic paradox of Chinatowns The impression of glitter and wealth hidden among economic deprivation –And poverty in Chinatown Rich history of organizational membership Clan or tsu organization and functions (Surname Association) © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chinatowns Today –Membership based on clan and family ties –Provided mutual assistance Tongs or secret societies –Formed on the basis of common interests –Some are political, others protest exploitation of Chinese workers, or provide illegal services © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chinatowns Today Hui Kuan (Huiguan) –Benevolent associations that help members adjust to a new life –Based on person’s district of origin rather than kinship Hui kuan associations are part of a larger organization, Chinese Six Companies © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chinatowns Today Conclusions reached about the various social organizations –All have followed patterns created in traditional China –All three types have performed similar functions © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chinatowns Today Providing mutual assistance and representing interests to a sometimes hostile dominant group –Conflict was inevitable; all groups had similar purposes and operated in the same locale –Old associations have declined significantly –When communicating with dominant society, all groups downplayed problems of Chinatown © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Social Problems Myth that Chinese Americans and Chinatowns have no problems The tourist industry in Chinatown as double edged sword Jobs but at substandard pay –Poverty –Poor health care, especially for the elderly © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Social Problems –High suicide rates –Poor and run-down housing –Rising crime rates –Poor working conditions –Inadequate care for the elderly –Weak union representation of laborers © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Family Life Change in family life is the most difficult cultural change to accept Domestic violence is a problem that recently surfaced Another problem is rise in gang activity –Chinese American youth are not part of the model minority © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Japanese Americans Initial Japanese immigrants came around 1885 (Push and pull factors) Initially many found employment in forestry & agriculture and then migrated to cities –Along the West Coast and established small businesses Came from a very stratified society © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Japanese Americans Feelings of “yellow peril” also directed at the Japanese Most came from the lower class in Japan Japanese Americans distinguish themselves –According to number of generations a family has been in the US © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Japanese Americans Each succeeding generation more acculturated; less likely to know Japanese –Issei (pronounced “EE-say”) First generation born in Japan –Sansei (“SAHN-say”) Third generation must go back to grandparents to reach their roots © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Japanese Americans –Nisei (“Nee-say) Children of first generation born in US –Yonsei (“YAWN-say”) Fourth generation –Kibei (“KEE-boy”) Nisei sent back to Japan for schooling and marriage then return to US © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Early Japanese Immigration Laws were passed prohibiting Issei from becoming citizens California Alien Land Act of 1913 –Prohibited anyone ineligible for citizenship from owning land and limited leases –Economic impact on agricultural land owned by Japanese Americans © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Early Japanese Immigration Adjustments to act led many to transfer ownership to American born children Many left agriculture and migrated to cities –And established small businesses catering to both the Japanese and dominant group © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Wartime Evacuation Executive Order 9066, signed by President Roosevelt on February 13, 1942 –Defined strategic military areas & authorized the removal of people considered threats Economic cost to the evacuees was: –In excess of $400 million or $3.7 billion in current dollars © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Wartime Evacuation Psychological impact & weakened family ties The way out and the loyalty test –Questions were ambiguous Japanese Americans demonstrated their loyalty to the United States –By participating in the war effort © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Wartime Evacuation Racism and internment –German & Italian Americans were not interned Japanese migration from the camps after the war Mitsuye Endo v. United States (1944) –Detainment was unconstitutional and consequently freedom was to be granted © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Wartime Evacuation Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (1981) –Government formally apologized and give $20,000 tax-free to 82,000 surviving internees Civil Liberties Act (1988) –Signed by Ronald Reagan authorizing payments © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Wartime Evacuation Payments slow in coming, other federal expenditures had priority Aging internees dying at rate of 200/month First checks issued in 1990 © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Economic Picture Socioeconomic status very different from Chinese Americans Upward mobility after WWII Japanese American educational attainment is higher than whites © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Economic Picture Occupationally have been upwardly mobile & experience the glass ceiling/wall Higher median family income than whites Few excuses apart from racism to explain why –Whites continue to view Japanese as different from them © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Family Life Acculturation and change in family structure Conjugal nuclear family structure Neolocal pattern of residence © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Family Life Rising divorce rate Crime, delinquency, and reported mental illness –Japanese have lower incidence than other minorities and Whites © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Remnants of Prejudice and Discrimination 2/3 of all children born to a Japanese American had a parent of a different race Entertainment media, if present –Karate experts or technical specialists –Chinese Americans are ignored or misrepresented in history books © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Remnants of Prejudice and Discrimination Young Asian Americans are trying to fight racist and exclusionary practices Intermarriage, not typical, legal and more common –More than 1/4th of Chinese Americans under age 24 marry someone who is not Chinese © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Remnants of Prejudice and Discrimination –Increase indicates Whites are increasingly accepting Chinese Americans –Also suggests Chinese and Japanese ties to native cultures are weakening Chinese and Japanese Americans more acceptable and less alien to Whites © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Remnants of Prejudice and Discrimination Some are seeking to justify internment Some Japanese Americans, especially Sansei are politically active –Emerged as activists for environment –Attack apparent rise in hate crimes in US against Asian Americans © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Remnants of Prejudice and Discrimination Lobbied for passage of Civil Rights Restoration Act Japanese Americans show little evidence of wanting to maintain distinct way of life Values that have endured are –Attitudes, beliefs, and goals shared by and rewarded by White middle-class © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.