Chapter 2 So What Is the Problem?

Learning Objectives Develop an understanding of the concepts of problem recognition and problem definition Be able to identify and explain the differences between problems and symptoms Learn to apply two common symptom organization tools: the Ishikawa diagram and the PIECES framework SAD/CHAPTER 2

Learning Objectives Understand the concept of bounded rationality and its effects on natural problem solving ability Review and explain a system classification approach that can assist in understanding the elements and actions of IS SAD/CHAPTER 2

Learning Objectives Develop a thorough understanding of the process of functional decomposition and its importance to SAD activities Learn the detailed phases of the SDLC and the typical activities and deliverables associated with each SAD/CHAPTER 2

Problems versus Symptoms A difference between things as desired and things as perceived (Cause & Weinberg, 1990) One person’s problem can be another person’s opportunity SAD/CHAPTER 2

Problems versus Symptoms An outward or physical manifestation of a problem that becomes noticeable as some variance from the norm A symptom is evidence of a problem, not necessarily the problem itself SAD/CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-1. One Man’s Problem – Another Man’s Opportunity SAD/CHAPTER 2

Problem Recognition and Definition You cannot solve the problem if you do not know what the real problem is. Scientists Observe a phenomenon Formulate a hypothesis Conduct an experiment Systems Analysts Recognize a variance Investigate Propose a solution SAD/CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-2. Analysts and Scientists Use a Similar Approach SAD/CHAPTER 2

Problem Recognition and Definition Cause and Effect One common method to define a problem is to explore the cause and effect trail created by its symptoms. If one can discover a common source for the symptoms, then one can assume that he or she has determined the nature of the problem. SAD/CHAPTER 2

Problem Recognition and Definition PIECES Framework Performance Information Economic Control Efficiency Service SAD/CHAPTER 2

PIECES Framework The need to improve Performance Improve throughput: the amount of work performed over some period of time. Improve response time: the average delay between a transaction and a response to that transaction. Throughput and response time should be evaluated separately and collectively. SAD/CHAPTER 2

PIECES Framework The need to improve Information and data Too little or too much information Lack of needed or relevant information Lack of relevant information Information that is not in a useful form Information that is not accurate or timely Information that is difficult to produce Illegal information SAD/CHAPTER 2

PIECES Framework The need to reduce Economic or cost impacts Costs are unknown Cost are untraceable to source Costs are excessive New markets can be explored to generate profit Marketing can be improved Opportunities to increase orders exist SAD/CHAPTER 2

PIECES Framework The need to improve Control and security Input data is not adequately edited Crimes are committed against data Fraud or embezzlement Ethics are breached based on data or information Redundantly stored data is inconsistent in different files Privacy of data is being violated Processing or decision making errors are occurring System is deviating from planned performance SAD/CHAPTER 2

PIECES Framework The need to improve Efficiency People or machines waste time Machines or processes waste materials and supplies Effort required for tasks is excessive Materials required for tasks are excessive SAD/CHAPTER 2

PIECES Framework The need to improve Service The system produces inaccurate results, inconsistent, or unreliable results. The system is not easy to learn or to use. The system is too complex or awkward. SAD/CHAPTER 2

PIECES Framework The need to improve Service The system is inflexible to situations and exceptions or new requirements. The system does not interface well to other systems. The system is not coordinated (“left hand does not know what right hand is doing”). SAD/CHAPTER 2

Problem Statement Once defined, the root problem must be communicated to a wide variety of parties: the users, the managers, the development team, and technical people. Problem statement is the common accepted method for such communication Also referred to as a Statement of Scope and Objectives SAD/CHAPTER 2

Bounded Rationality Proposed by Herbert A. Simon Cognitive limitations of human beings make it impractical to consider all possible alternatives to a practical problem SAD/CHAPTER 2

Bounded Rationality Systems analysts are not likely to gather all relevant information available regarding a particular problem. It suggests the need for guidance and structure in the identification of a problem and the selection of a satisfactory alternative (e.g. SDLC). SAD/CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-4. Theoretical Problem Space and Bounded Rationality SAD/CHAPTER 2

The Concept of Systems A system is a set of interrelated elements, with an identifiable boundary, that function together to achieve a common goal. SAD/CHAPTER 2

The Concept of Systems The concept of interrelatedness The elements of a system are interdependent. Those elements work together to achieve the goals of objectives of the system. SAD/CHAPTER 2

The Concept of Systems The concept of a boundary A system a definable within the context of all other systems and that its limits can be established by virtue of it having a definable boundary. SAD/CHAPTER 2

The Concept of Systems The common goal The goal or purpose of a system is its reason for being . If a system has no reason to exist because it has outlived its usefulness or it no longer can provide the necessary functionality, then the purpose is no longer important and the system is no longer necessary. SAD/CHAPTER 2

System Classification Open Systems Closed systems Figure 2-5 SAD/CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-5. Comparison of Characteristics for Open and Closed Systems SAD/CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-6. A Typical Terrarium – A Closed System SAD/CHAPTER 2

Closed Systems Also referred to as stable or mechanistic system Highly structured and routine in operation SAD/CHAPTER 2

Open System Also referred to as adaptive or organic systems Less structured and routine in operation Adapt to changes in internal and external conditions SAD/CHAPTER 2

The Subsystem The process of breaking a system into its component elements is called functional decomposition. It allows us to study a single part of a system (subsystem). SAD/CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-7. The Concept of Functional Decomposition SAD/CHAPTER 2

SDLC Preliminary investigation phase Analysis phase Logical design phase Physical design phase Implementation phase Maintenance phase SAD/CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-8. The Systems Development Life Cycle SAD/CHAPTER 2

Preliminary Investigation Phase Purposes Formulate the initial problem statement in a precise and understandable manner Investigate technical, economic, and operational feasibilities Deliverable Preliminary feasibility study (baseline project plan) SAD/CHAPTER 2

Analysis Phase Purposes Deliverables Logical modeling Assemble formal requirements for the system Deliverables DFD and ERD Formal requirement definition SAD/CHAPTER 2

Logical Design Phase Purposes Deliverables Redesigning the existing to reflect the proposed solution Incorporate new features for the system Deliverables Final performance specification Detailed logical models SAD/CHAPTER 2

Physical Design Phase Purposes Deliverables Convert the logical models into a physical model Deliverables Physical specification A formal feasibility analysis SAD/CHAPTER 2

Implementation Phase Purposes Deliverables End user training System conversion Deliverables System documentation Training program and schedule SAD/CHAPTER 2

Maintenance Phase Purposes Deliverables Error correction and system enhancement Deliverables Fully functioning system SAD/CHAPTER 2

Figure 2-9. Distribution of Types of Maintenance Agreements SAD/CHAPTER 2

Table 2-2. Activities and Deliverables During SDLC SAD/CHAPTER 2

Systems Development Principles Get the Users Involved Systems Analysis is Problem Solving ISs Are Capital Assets Good Ideas Can Become Bad Ideas Document Now Use the Divide-Conquer Approach SAD/CHAPTER 2

Summary The fundamental activity of the modern systems analyst is that of problem identification and solution development. The concept of bounded rationality can help the analyst in identifying a problem and proposing a solution. Systems development principles should be followed by systems analysts. SAD/CHAPTER 2

Chapter 2 End of Chapter