Chapter 5 Motivation at Work

Learning Outcomes Define motivation and articulate different views of how individuals are motivated at work Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and its two main modifications Discuss how the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation influence an individual’s behavior in the workplace

Learning Outcomes Describe the two-factor theory of motivation Explain two new ideas in human motivation Describe the role of inequity in motivation Describe the expectancy theory of motivation Describe the cultural differences in motivation

Learning Outcome Define motivation and articulate different views of how individuals are motivated at work

Motivation Arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior Classification of theories Internal - Focus on variables within the individual that lead to motivation and behavior Process - Emphasize the nature of interaction between the individual and the environment External - Focus on the elements in the environment to explain people’s work behavior

Early Motivational Theorists Max Weber Meaning of work lies in its potential for contributing to a person’s ultimate salvation Protestant ethic Encouraged hard work on the basis that prosperous workers were more likely to find a place in heaven

Early Motivational Theorists Sigmund Freud Organizational life of a person was founded on the compulsion to work and the power of love Psychoanalytic approach Psychoanalysis: Delving into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives and needs Explains deviant behavior in the workplace

Early Motivational Theorists Adam Smith Person's self-interest is determined by God, not the government Self-interest: Doing things in the best interest of and benefit to an individual Employees are most productive when motivated by self-interest

Early Motivational Theorists Frederick Taylor Basis of conflict between labor and management is the division of the profits Labor and management should work together to enlarge total profits

Hawthorne Studies Recognized informal aspects of an organization Studied what motivates people to be productive Enlightened self-interest - Recognizes one’s own needs and others’ interests

Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and its two main modifications Learning Outcome Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and its two main modifications

Figure 5.1 - Human Needs, Theory X, and Theory Y © Cengage Learning 2013

Theory X and Theory Y Theory X Theory Y Set of assumptions on how to manage individuals who are motivated by lower order needs Theory Y Set of assumptions on how to manage individuals who are motivated by higher order needs

McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory X Indolent, lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be led Inherently self-centered and indifferent Resistant to change, gullible, not bright, and ready dupes Based on Theory Y Passive and resistant behaviors not inherent; result of organizational experience Possess: Motivation and development potential Capacity for assuming responsibility Readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals

Alderfer’s ERG Theory Organizes human needs into the categories of existence, relatedness, and growth Existence need - Physiological and physical safety needs Relatedness need - Interpersonal safety, love, and interpersonal esteem needs Growth need - Self-actualization and self-esteem needs

Progression and Regression Hypothesis Moving ahead to a higher level of need when one level of need is met Feature of Maslow’s need hierarchy theory Progression hypothesis Going back to the next lower level of needs when frustrated by the inability to meet needs at the next higher level Feature of ERG theory Regression hypothesis

Learning Outcome Discuss how the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation influence an individual’s behavior in the workplace

McClelland’s Theory Manifest needs: Learned or acquired needs that are easily perceived Achievement Power Affiliation

McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Achievement Encompasses excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties The Murray Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Measures the achievement motive

McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Achievement People with high need for achievement: Set goals that are moderately difficult and achievable Like to receive feedback Do not like having external events interfere with their progress toward the goals Hope and plan for success Are content to work alone or with other people

McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Power Desire to influence others Urge to change people or events Wish to make a difference in life Socialized power - Used for the benefit of many Personalized power - Used for individual gain

McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Affiliation Urge to establish and maintain warm relationships with others People with a high need for affiliation: Are motivated to express their emotions Expect others to express their emotions Find conflicts disturbing Are motivated to work through barriers to closeness

Need for Autonomy Desire for independence and freedom from constraints People with a high need for autonomy prefer to: Work alone Control the pace of their work

Figure 5.2 - Need Theories of Motivation © Cengage Learning 2013

Describe the two-factor theory of motivation Learning Outcome Describe the two-factor theory of motivation

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Hygiene factors Motivation factors Both are work conditions, but each addresses a different part of an employee’s experience

Table 5.2 - The Motivation-Hygiene Theory of Motivation

Critique of Herzberg A factor may not fit exclusively into the motivation or hygiene categories Does not account for individual differences Intrinsic job factors may be more important in determining job satisfaction Supporting data is based on the critical-incident technique

Explain two new ideas in human motivation Learning Outcome Explain two new ideas in human motivation

New Ideas: Eustress, Strength, and Hope Stress - Energy experienced when confronted with a difficult situation Eustress: Healthy, normal stress that leads one to: Invest in strengths Find meaning in work Display courage and principled action Draw on positive emotions at work Be optimistic

New Ideas: Positive Energy and Full Engagement To balance the power of full engagement, individuals should: Manage energy Disengage from certain activities Individuals are activated by their own physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual energy Energy recovery is important in overall performance

Beyond the Book: Does Motivation “Work”? A new study in England argues that motivational awards given to children, such as points, stickers, and treats, have little effect on performance. They may reduce “intrinsic motivation.” Rather than doing a task for its own sake, they do it just for the reward. According to Emma Dunmore, head of psychology at Harrogate Grammar School in North Yorkshire, England, children may actually be less motivated by rewards given for performance. In her study, she argues that incentives such as points, treats or stickers have little long-term results because it reduces intrinsic motivation, that is, the desire to perform a task because an individual wants to. Instead, she argues that rewards lead students to do things only for the sake of the reward, leading to feelings that they are being controlled by external factors. As she writes in her study, “Rewards may strengthen behavior in the short term but... they can undermine motivation in the long run because they reduce the individual's perception that they are doing that task of their own free will.” SOURCE: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/6563040/Classroom-rewards-do-not-work-work.html

Describe the role of inequity in motivation Learning Outcome Describe the role of inequity in motivation

Social Exchange and Equity Theory Equity theory - Focuses on the interaction between an individual and the environment Concerned with the social processes that influence motivation and behavior Categories of exchange relationships Committed - High positive intensity Calculated - Low positive or negative intensity Alienated - High negative intensity

Figure 5.3 - The Individual-Organizational Exchange Relationship SOURCE: J. P. Campbell, M. D. Dunnette, E. E. Lawler, III, and K. E. Weick, Jr., Managerial Behavior, Performance, and Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1970). Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Adams’s Theory of Inequity People are motivated when they find themselves in situations of inequity Inequity: Situation in which a person perceives that he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving and vice versa

Figure 5.4 - Equity and Inequity at Work © Cengage Learning 2013

Strategies for Resolution of Inequity Alter the person’s outcomes Alter the person’s inputs Alter the comparison other’s outcomes Alter the comparison other’s inputs Change who is used as a comparison other Rationalize the inequity Leave the organizational situation

New Perspectives on Equity Theory Individuals who prefer an equity ratio equal to that of their comparison other Equity sensitives Individuals who are comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of their comparison other Benevolents Individuals who are comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of their comparison other Entitleds

Describe the expectancy theory of motivation Learning Outcome Describe the expectancy theory of motivation

Expectancy Theory Explains motivation in terms of an individual’s perception of the performance process Assumptions People expect certain outcomes of behavior and performance People believe there is a correlation between the effort they put forth, the performance they achieve, and the outcomes they receive

Key Constructs of Expectancy Theory Valence: Value or importance one places on a particular reward Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to performance Instrumentality: Belief that performance is related to rewards

Figure 5.5 - An Expectancy Model for Motivation © Cengage Learning 2013

3 Causes of Motivational Problems Disbelief in a relationship between effort and performance Disbelief in a relationship between performance and rewards Lack of desire for the rewards offered

Moral Maturity Measure of a person’s cognitive moral development Enable understand an individual’s altruistic, fair, and equitable behavior Behavior of: Morally mature people is based on universal ethical principles Morally immature people is based on egocentric motivations

Describe the cultural differences in motivation Learning Outcome Describe the cultural differences in motivation

Cultural Differences Most motivation theories in use today have been developed by and about Americans Motivational theories cannot be universalized

Beyond the Book: Motivation in Beijing Participants in the opening ceremony of the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing faced harsh conditions – 16 hour sessions, heatstroke, exposure to rain, and one session that lasted 51 hours. During the ceremony, some performers wore adult diapers so that they could perform for six hours. There were, however, almost no complaints from the performers, most of whom agreed that such sacrifices were worth it for the good of the nation. This case illustrates well not only the power of motivation, but the cross-cultural differences in motivating individuals. Performers and artists in China were asked to rehearse and perform under difficult circumstances, leading to at least one catastrophic injury to renowned dancer Liu Yang, to present the glories of Chinese culture to the rest of the world. With that collective goal in mind, the thousands of individuals endured what many in the West would consider torturous and inhumane conditions. SOURCE: http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/summer08/news/story?id=3543618

Friday Night Lights Does Mike Winchell show the characteristics of this chapter’s definition of motivation early in the scene? Do you expect him to show any of the characteristics after the scene ends and he returns to the team? Which needs discussed in this chapter does Mike appear to focus on early in the scene? Which needs become his focus later in the scene? Apply “McClelland’s Need Theory” to this scene. Which parts of that theory appear in this scene? Give specific examples. The Odessa, Texas passion for Friday night high school football (Permian High Panthers) comes through clearly in this cinematic treatment of H. G. (Buzz) Bissinger’s well-regarded book of the same title. Coach Gary Gaines (Billy Bob Thornton) leads the Panthers to the 1988 semifinals where they must compete against a team of much larger players. A fast-moving pace in the football sequences and a slower pace in the serious, introspective sequences give this film many fine moments. Ask your students: 1. Does Mike Winchell show the characteristics of the definition of motivation early in the scene? Do you expect him to show any of the characteristics after the scene ends and he returns to the team? 2. Which needs discussed earlier in this chapter does Mike appear to be focused on early in the scene? Which needs become his focus later in the scene? 3. Apply “McClelland’s Need Theory” to this scene. Which parts of that theory appear in this scene? Give specific examples.

Urban Escapes Which needs in Maslow’s hierarchy are most important to the employees who work for Urban Escapes, and how can managers use this information to develop a highly motivated workforce? According to equity theory, how might an Urban Escapes guide react if he or she feels underpaid or unappreciated? What outcomes or rewards possess high valence for the managers and guides who work at Urban Escapes? Founded in 2008 by Maia Josebachvili and Bram Levy, Urban Escapes has earned high praise for its vast array of exciting outdoor adventures. For the Urban Escapes employees working behind the scenes to deliver “Zen Escape Yoga Hikes” and “Boulder and Brew Tours,” motivation comes naturally. The company’s managers and guides are driven by the freedom and opportunity that only a start-up company can offer. “We gave everyone a lot of ownership in their cities,” Josebachvili says of her guides. “Initially, we said every time you want to run a trip, you run it by us. Within a few months, I was like, ‘Okay, if you know it’s going to work, don’t come to us—you got this’. After a year, I felt really good about what they were doing.” Ask your students: Which needs in Maslow’s hierarchy are most important to the employees who work for Urban Escapes, and how can managers use this information to develop a highly motivated workforce? According to equity theory, how might an Urban Escapes guide react if he or she feels underpaid or unappreciated? What outcomes or rewards possess high valence for the managers and guides who work at Urban Escapes?