The Sociological Perspective Chapter 1

Learning Objectives Understand the sociological point of view and how it differs from that of journalists and talk-show hosts. Compare and contrast sociology with the other major social sciences. Describe the early development of sociology from its origins in nineteenth-century Europe. Know the contributions of sociology’s pioneers: Comte, Martineau, Spencer, Marx, Durkheim, and Weber. Describe the early development of sociology in the United States. Understand the functionalist, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionist perspectives. Realize the relationship between theory and practice.

Sociology as a Point of View What is Sociology? It is the scientific study of human society and social interactions. Main focus Group Seeks to understand: Forces that operate throughout society Forces that mold individuals and shape their behavior And, thus determine social events

The Sociological Imagination C. Wright Mills (1959) used the term sociological imagination to refer to: Examining the relationship between individual experiences Bringing into focus the forces in the larger society that shape our actions

The Sociological Imagination at Work Social Problems Divorce Appropriate taxation Increased tuition Suicide or death of a loved one

The Sociological Imagination at Work Social Relationships Crowds at sports events Shifts in styles of dress and popular music Changing patterns in courtship and marriage The emergence and fading of different lifestyles Political movements Religious sects The distribution of income and access to resources and opportunities Decisions made by the Supreme Court, congressional committees, and local zoning boards

To be a sociologist, you have to: Develop a Sociological Imagination Change how you see the world Broaden your perspective on the world Make objective sense out of what’s going on around you

Objective Analysis Understanding Crime Statistics An example of moving from personal or anecdotal experience to objective understanding

Sociology and Science Sociology Commonly described as one of the social sciences Refers to a body of systematically arranged knowledge that shows operation of general laws Employs the same general methods of investigation that are used in the natural science

Scientific Method A process by which a body of scientific knowledge is built through observation, experimentation, generalization, and verification.

Empiricism The view that generalizations are valid only if they rely on evidence that can be observed or verified through sense. Theologians Philosophers Sociologists Believe faith produces true happiness Debate what happiness encompasses Note, analyze, and predict consequences of such measurable items as job satisfaction, relationship between education and income, role of social class, and divorce.

Social Sciences The disciplines that apply scientific methods to the study of human behavior. Sociology Anthropology Psychology Economics History Political Science Social Work

Sociology vs. Other Disciplines Sociologist study groups and institutions within large, modern, and industrial societies using research methods that enable them to quickly gather specific information about large numbers of people. Cultural anthropologists immerse themselves in another society for a long time, trying to learn as much as possible about that society and the relationships among it. Sociologists look at patterns of behavior. Psychologists look at motivation, perception, cognition, creativity, mental disorders, and personality. Sociologists study social factors that influence a person’s economic decision. Economists study price availability factors. Sociologists look at historical events within their social contexts to discover why things happened and, more importantly, to assess what their social significance was and is. Sociology focuses on the present. Historians look at past events to attempt to learn what happened, when it happened, and why it happened. Sociologists focus on how political systems affect other institutions in society. Political science devotes more attention to the forces that shape political systems and the theories for understanding these forces. Sociologists try to understand why problems exist. Social workers help people solve problems.

Development of Sociology Emerged as a separate field of study in Europe during the 19th century Stimulated by the Industrial Revolution and the 18th-century American and French Revolutions.

Key Sociologists Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) Karl Marx (1818-1883) Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) Max Weber (1864-1920) W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963)

Notable Contributors Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Envisioned a science of man Sought to develop a cohesive discipline that would: reveal the underlying principles of society utilize scientific principles of physical science Coined the term sociology

Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) Published Theory and Practice of Society is America in 1837. Emphasized observation of day-to-day life Traveled throughout the United States observing life everywhere from prisons to family gatherings Encouraged social activism Outspoken about treatment of women in the United States Translated Auguste Comte’s six volume Positive Philosophy to English

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) Believed that society was similar to a living organism Proponent of social Darwinism Charles Darwin’s notion of “survival of the fittest”—animals adapted to the environment survived and prospered while the poorly adapted died out. Provided support for social inequality

Classical Sociological Theorists Karl Marx (1818-1883) Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) Max Weber (1864-1920)

Karl Marx (1818-1883) Focused on human condition during Industrial Revolution Historical perspective of class conflict Bourgeoisie – the owners and controllers of the means of production (capitalists) Proletariat – the mass of workers Provided foundations for modern conflict theory

Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) Viewed individuals as the product of the social environment Society shapes people in every possible way Focused on forces that hold society together Concept of social variables Provided foundations for functionalist theory

Studied/Identified Three Types of Suicide Egoistic Suicide comes from low group solidarity, and underinvolvement with others. Altruistic Suicide derives from a very high level of group solidarity and overinvolvement with others. Anomic Suicide results from a sense of feeling disconnected from society’s values (norms).

Max Weber (1864-1920) Focused on understanding social actions Primary interest: Individual meanings people attach to the world around them Subjective interpretative Concentration on understanding human behavior Emphasized understanding rather than activism Pursued description and explanation of social truth or fact as means for influencing the social system

American Sociologists W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963) Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) Robert Merton (1910-2003) George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

W.E.B. Du Bois First African-American to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard Established sociology program at Atlanta University Advocated militant resistance to white racism Moved to Ghana

Talcott Parsons Most responsible for developing theories of structural functionalism in the U.S. Elaborated on the ideas of Durkheim

Robert Merton Influential proponent of functionalist theory Manifest functions and latent functions Under leadership of Merton and Parsons, U.S. sociology adopted a “value-free” perspective

George Herbert Mead Developed the symbolic interactionist perspective

Foundation of Sociology Classical Sociological Theories Functionalist Conflict Symbolic Interactionist

Functionalism Views society as a system of highly interrelated structures or parts that function or operate together harmoniously Society viewed as organism in balance Attempts to account for all social variables Conflict between variables disrupts balance

Conflict Theory Envisions constant struggle to obtain maximum benefit Conflict viewed as the normal order Wealth, power, and prestige are focus of conflict Emphasis on who benefits from social division and control Struggle based on unequal power and control of means of production (resources)

Symbolic Interaction Subjective Interpretation Focuses on how individuals interpret the social world Seeks understanding of meanings of individual and social behavior—the social act The interpretation and meaning of: Signs Symbols Language Gestures Objects

Contemporary Sociology A synthesis of theory and research Seeks broad understanding of and attention to social problems via: Empirical study Compilation and interpretation of data gathered Activist application