Migration to New Zealand 3.6 Trend Essay

3.6- What is the Aim? Analyse a significant historical trend and the force(s) that influenced it TREND-a series of related events that has a range of causes and that illustrates significant social, political, cultural, environmental or economic changes and continuities over a period of time. FORCE- an idea, concept, or condition which promotes social, political, cultural, environmental, or economic change or a combination of these. CHANGE- that occurs as a result of this trend.

Our Trend and Forces TREND: Migration to New Zealand FORCES: Colonialism, Push/Pull Factors, Desire for a better world, Organised Migration Schemes. We need to address the following questions; Why did people migrate to New Zealand? To what extent did immigration affect the nature of society?

Waves of Migration James Belich argues that there were 3 ‘waves’ of migration to New Zealand. 1790s-1840s: Hundreds of migrants come to exploit resources (notably whalers, sealers and missionaries) 1850s-1860s: Thousands, mostly British arrive. Many come through organised migration companies with the aim to settle on land. 1870s Onwards: Tens of thousands arrive- assisted migrants were organised by the central government to meet national goals.

Force- Colonialism Colonialism was a political force, which was a significant contributing factor in the first wave of migration to NZ. What is Colonialism? How would this force have contributed to migration before 1840?

Force- Colonialism British Colonisation of NZ at the beginning of the century, occurred after a number of explorers mapped the country in the 18th Century. This also coincided with Britain’s ‘Imperial Century’ in which they were relatively unrivalled in power, and added significant territory to their empire. This drove migration to NZ as Britain were seeking territory to expand their empire. Migration was necessitated in order to control the country and exploit its resources effectively.

Reasons to Migrate to NZ Push/Pull Factors

Macro Push Factors Social Force Poor living conditions for the working class. Lack of economic opportunity for working and lower-middle class people. Britain had a rigid class system which seriously limited social mobility and the freedom to choose. Britain had an established church (Church of England) which non-members saw as restrictive.

Macro Pull Factors Land was available in NZ- this was a means to a better life for many migrants. General living conditions were better in NZ- more space, cleaner environment, fewer people. There was greater freedom in NZ in terms of; class, economic opportunity, independence and religion. An idealised image of NZ was promoted in Britain through migrations schemes and in literature.

Micro Push Factors From Britain: From Australia: Cheaply imported minerals were causing unemployment for miners particularly. Wages were not rising in rural areas as fast as they were in the cities. Loss of use of common land for poor farmers and labourers. From Australia: Exhaustion of gold in Victoria. A desire to escape the inequalities of land and wealth.

Micro Pull Factors Some migrants came temporarily to profit from gold, timber etc., then return to Britain in a better economic position. Single, working class women came to NZ between the 1850s and 1870s as a result of a much better prospect for the future. This included a greater chance of finding employment, the gender imbalance offered them a greater chance of marrying and many were offered a free or subsidised passage by provincial or central governments. Chain Migration- following family or friends who had already migrated. Seeking to improve health by living in a more temperate climate and cleaner conditions.

Summary Many people who migrated to NZ were looking for a better life than they had in Britain (social force). This pertained largely to the greater economic, social and religious freedom in NZ as well as greater opportunities offered here. NZ also presented a more desirable, healthy, clean and spacious environment.

Organised Migration Schemes 1840-1900

Edward Gibbon Wakefield The ‘ideas’ man behind the New Zealand Company (est. 1837) Wakefield had grown up in a family with roots in philanthropy and social reform In 1829, while in prison for abducting a 15-year- old heiress, published a pamphlet and a series of newspaper articles – the latter eventually republished as a book – promoting the colonising of Australasia.

The New Zealand Company Established in London in 1837 for the purpose of promoting systematic colonisation in NZ- to avoid the ‘ills of colonisation’ seen in Australia and Canada. They wanted to transplant a slice of ‘Old England’ in New Zealand- envisaging small, self-sufficient communities which would be based on pre- industrial hierarchies. The company was established to allow Wakefield to purchase large areas of land very cheaply from Maori and selling it to settlers for a higher sum. Many of these deals with Maori were of dubious validity.

A New Zealand Company Settlement Advertisement

Attracting Settlers The NZ Company relied heavily on propaganda to attract settlers, which was often over-embellished. Gentry were enticed with cheap land (comparatively) and the working class were guaranteed employment, good wages and the possibility of land ownership. The ‘sufficient price’ of land was set high enough to attract the middle and upper classes but low enough to deter labourers from purchasing land immediately. A fixed portion of land sales revenue was set aside to subsidise the passage of settlers to New Zealand, as well as for religious and educational works.

NZ Company Settlements Wellington 1840 Whanganui 1840 (flow over settlement from Wellington) New Plymouth 1841 Nelson 1842 Organised Settlements Associated with the NZ Company Otago 1848 Canterbury 1850

Positive Impact of the Settlements Settlements were all established by the mid 1850s. Although some selection of migrants had occurred the influence of this extended only to a relatively youthful population and gender balance. Religious uniformity was not achieved. Migrants all had similar ideas about need for self-government and the importance of education- boosting colonial development. The class structure that developed in the settlements was loose, there was no agricultural capitalist group, and labourers refused to accept inferiority.

Negative Impact of the Settlements There were a large number of speculative, absentee land owners resulting in a shortage of employers in some settlements. The sufficient price of land did not work in the way Wakefield intended and thus many labourers could purchase land quickly. Labourers set up small family farms which became the dominant form of farming- they didn’t employ labourers themselves. Most sites were unsuitable for arable farming as intended, they were better suited to sheep farming and expansion into the hinterland was unregulated

Negative Impact Continued The NZ Company had insufficient knowledge of the sites for settlement before migrants arrived (c-/ Wellington). This made plans impossible or difficult to implement and often left settlers disappointed. Disputes with Maori over land deals meant that land was not always available when migrants arrived.

Provincial Migration Schemes From 1856 the provinces had the role of organising immigration. Most migrants came from Britain but some were from Australia and South Africa. All provinces brought in migrants but Canterbury and Otago were more successful due to their abundant resources.

Provincial Migration Schemes Agents or companies were appointed to find suitable migrants. Rural labourers, domestic servants and people with capital were targeted. Offers were made of assisted or free passage and of land to lease or purchase. In the 1850s/60s Canterbury and Otago recruited some 8000 single women. The objective of this was to; Meet the demand for domestic servants Correct the gender imbalance.

Vogel’s Migration Scheme 1870s In 1870 the central government took over recruitment of migration. Vogel’s scheme involved the use of loan money from Britain to assist significant numbers of migrants. During the decade of the Vogel Scheme 100,700 assisted migrants came out of a total 190,000. ¾ came from Britain and Ireland. 1874 was the peak year for this scheme.

Vogel’s Migration Scheme 1870s An Agent-General recruited migrants in Britain using a network of established agents. Assisted migrants were often poor, and from rural backgrounds. Assisted migrants were often uneducated (25% were illiterate) but were generally hardworking and had useful agricultural skills. Most settled in and around main centres. 60% went to the South Island where there was more economic development occurring.

CHANGES and CONTINUITY In what ways did organised migration change NZ society? What changes occurred in terms of the goals and methods of organised migration? What aspects of continuity can you see in organised migration to NZ throughout the 19th century?

Unorganised Migration 19th Century

General Features Unorganised migration refers to migrants who made their own way to NZ, outside of any schemes. Auckland was populated to 10,853 people by 1853 and was the largest settlement in NZ, fuelled by unorganised migration. Independent migrants came in family groups or followed other family members or friends through a process of chain migration. Many independent migrants were single men.

1840s-1850s At least as many independent migrants as in all of the organised schemes arrived in NZ during these decades. 1860s Most migrants arriving during this decade were independent. They were attracted by the lure of gold and the associated prosperity. 1870s 90,000 independent migrants arrived during this decade, compared with 100,700 organised migrants. This shows the importance of unorganised migration even in a decade when a major organised scheme (Vogel) was operating Groups Examples of groups of independent migrants include the Dalmatians from Croatia (gold and gum) Dutch, Scandinavians, Germans and Austrians.

Gold and Migration The gold rushes in the 1860s were responsible for the significant influx in migrants both organised and unorganised which saw the population of NZ increase by 2/3rds during this decade. This gave a significant boost to the South Island population. Internal migration also occurred as people already in NZ headed to the goldfields.

Gold and Migration Many miners came from the goldfields in Victoria (Australia) bringing experience and attitudes with them. The significant majority of miners on the West Coast and in Otago were British or Irish. Most miners were young, unmarried and male. This resulted in a significant gender imbalance. In Otago in 1864 there was one woman for every eighteen men. Most miners were working class.

Chinese Migration and Gold From 1866 Chinese miners arrived in Otago in significant numbers. They were initially encouraged by the Otago Provincial Council who were concerned about a decline in mining in the area. By 1881there were over 5000 Chinese miners in Otago (40% of all miners in the area) Most migrants were poor peasant farmers or skilled workers. They were used to enduring hardship and came with the purpose of sending money home to support their families. Eventually, most intended to return.

Chinese Migration and Gold Chinese miners formed strong family and kinship and family groupings for mutual help. They lived in small, distinct and self-sufficient communities. They were perceived as long-term visitors rather than settlers and a strong anti-Chinese prejudice developed among Maori and Pakeha. Many miners stayed on in NZ after gold declined while others departed. Those remaining were adaptable, tough, independent and had skills useful in agriculture and industry.