FIGURE 7.1. Physiography: Major physical features. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 7.2. Physiography: Relief and drainage. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 7.3. Volcanic plateau, near Lalibela, Ethiopia. Several layers of basalt are visible on the mountainside. Photo: Evelyn Peters. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 7.4. Rift valleys and volcanic peaks. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 7.5. Escarpment along the edge of the Great Rift Valley near Naivasha, Kenya. Photo: author. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 7.6. Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. A small icecap crowns the summit of this magnificent volcanic peak. At 5,895 m above sea level, it is the highest mountain in Africa. Photo: © CIDA. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 7.7. Inselberg at Abuja, Nigeria. The smooth, rounded form is typical of inselbergs. Photo: author. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 7.8. Schematic drawing of the formation of inselbergs. The processes of chemical weathering and erosion that give shape to inselbergs occur gradually over millions of years. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 8.1. Seasonal variations in atmospheric pressure, winds, and precipitation. (a) Pressure and winds, January. (b) Pressure and winds, July. (c) Mean monthly precipitation (in millimeters), January. (d) Mean monthly precipitation (in millimeters), July. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 8.2. Schematic cross-section of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), showing associated weather conditions. After A. T. Grove. Africa, 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978, p. 14. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 8.3. Early rainy season storm, northern Nigeria. In savanna environments, the start of a rainy season is a time for celebration. Towering cumulonimbus clouds darken the sky. The calm is broken by strong gusts of wind that raise the dust, then a heavy shower or perhaps a downpour. The air is filled with the smell of earth, as the raindrops moisten the parched earth. Children frolic in the rain. Within days, the dry brown landscape starts to turn green. Photo: author. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 8.4a. Climate types. Climate graphs for representative places in each of the broad climatic regions are shown in Figure 8.4b. After The Atlas of Africa. Paris: Atlas Jeune Afrique, 1977, p. 75. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 8.4b. Climate graphs for selected stations. The lines indicate temperature; bars are rainfall per month. For the locations of the stations, see Figure 8.4a. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 8.5. Quaternary landscape features in the southern Sahara. The map shows fluctuations in the location of the Saharan boundary, as well as some of the landscape features associated with climate changes. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 8.6. Late stone age rock art depicting animals, Twyfelfontien, Namibia. These images are between 2,000 and 6,000 years old, and are part of one of the largest assemblages of rock engravings in Africa. Rock paintings found in many parts of Africa provide insights into past changes in climate and ecology. Photo: © UNESCO (Thomas Dowson). From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 8.7. Rainfall variability in the Sahel, 1900 –2011. The data are expressed as percentage deviations above or below the mean annual precipitation over this period. The graph provides a clear illustration of the decline in precipitation since the 1960s. Source: Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean at the University of Washington. Sahel Rainfall Index. University of Washington and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (Available online at Reprinted by permission. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 8.8. Frequency of dust storms and annual rainfall totals at Khartoum, Sudan, 1950 –1983. Here, as elsewhere along the Saharan boundary, dust storms have become increasingly common. Source: A. S. Goudie. “Climate: Past and present.” In W. M. Adams, A. S. Goudie, and A. R. Orme, eds. The Physical Geography of Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, © 1996 by Oxford University Press. Reprinted by permission. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 9.1. Vegetation regions. Note the broad correspondence of vegetation and climate shown on the map, and also summarized in Table 9.1. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

TABLE 9.1. Africa’s Major Biomes From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 9.2a. Views from four vegetation regions. (a) Tropical rain forest, southern Cameroon. Photo: © CIDA (Roger LeMoyne). From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 9.2b. Views from four vegetation regions. (b) Dry parkland savanna, south central Kenya. Photo: author. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 9.2c. Views from four vegetation regions. (c) Semidesert, southern Kenya. Photo: author. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 9.2d. Views from four vegetation regions. (d) Desert, Eritrea. Photo: Melvin Peters. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 9.3. Vegetation clearance, Côte d’Ivoire. The use of fire to clear brush has some immediate benefits for herders and farmers, but may have major environmental costs, including the elimination of some species and increased soil erosion. Photo: © CIDA (M. Faugere). From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 9.4. Degree of susceptibility to desertification. Up to one-quarter of Africa’s land area, including large areas not located along the desert fringe, is susceptible to degradation. Source: Environmental Development Action (ENDA). Environment and Development in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981, p. 9. © 1981 by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and ENDA. Reprinted by permission. From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 9.5a. Adapting to drought. (a) Tending a new windbreak, Burkina Faso. Windbreaks improve crop yields by reducing both soil erosion and evapotranspiration; they also provide a source of fuel wood. Photo: © CIDA (David Barbour). From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.

FIGURE 9.5b. Adapting to drought. (b) Constructing depressions to collect rainwater for crop production. Photo: © CIDA (David Barbour). From Africa South of the Sahara, 3 rd edition, by Robert Stock. Copyright 2013 by The Guilford Press.